Mechanical Metallurgy

Table of Contents......Page 5
List of Symbols......Page 18
1-1 Scope of this Book......Page 22
1-2 Strength of Materials - Basic Assumptions......Page 24
1-3 Elastic and Plastic Behavior......Page 25
1-4 Average Stress and Strain......Page 26
1-5 Tensile Deformation of Ductile Metal......Page 27
1-6 Ductile vs. Brittle Behavior......Page 28
1-7 What Constitutes Failure ?......Page 29
1-8 Concept of Stress and the Types of Stresses......Page 31
1-9 Concept of Strain and the Types of Strain......Page 33
1-10 Units of Stress and Other Quantities......Page 34
Bibliography......Page 35
2-2 Description of Stress at a Point......Page 36
2-3 State of Stress in Two Dimensions (Plane Stress)......Page 38
2-4 Mohr's Circle of Stress-- Two Dimensions......Page 43
2-5 State of Stress in Three Dimensions......Page 45
2-6 Stress Tensor......Page 49
2-7 Mohr's Circle-- Three Dimensions......Page 54
2-8 Description of Strain at a Point......Page 56
2-9 Mohr's Circle of Strain......Page 62
2-10 Hydrostatic and Deviator Components of Stress......Page 64
2-11 Elastic Stress-Strain Relations......Page 66
2-12 Calculation of Stresses from Elastic Strains......Page 69
2-13 Strain Energy......Page 71
2-14 Anisotropy of Elastic Behavior......Page 72
2-15 Stress Concentration......Page 79
2-16 Finite Element Method......Page 84
Bibliography......Page 87
3-1 Introduction......Page 88
3-2 The Flow Curve......Page 89
3-3 True Stress and True Strain......Page 91
3-4 Yielding Criteria for Ductile Metals......Page 95
3-5 Combined Stress Tests......Page 99
3-6 The Yield Locus......Page 100
3-7 Anisotropy in Yielding......Page 101
3-8 Yield Surface and Normality......Page 103
3-9 Octahedral Shear Stress and Shear Strain......Page 105
3-10 Invariants of Stress and Strain......Page 106
3-11 Plastic Stress-Strain Relations......Page 107
3-12 Two-Dimensional Plastic Flow-- Slip-Line Field Theory......Page 111
Bibliography......Page 118
4-1 Introduction......Page 120
4-2 Concepts of Crystal Geometry......Page 121
4-3 Lattice Defects......Page 125
4-4 Deformation by Slip......Page 131
4-5 Slip in a Perfect Lattice......Page 134
4-6 Slip by Dislocation Movement......Page 136
4-7 Critical Resolved Shear Stress for Slip......Page 141
4-8 Deformation of Single Crystals......Page 144
4-9 Deformation of Face-Centered Cubic Crystals......Page 147
4-10 Deformation by Twinning......Page 149
4-11 Stacking Faults......Page 152
4-12 Deformation Bands and Kink Bands......Page 154
4-13 Microstrain Behavior......Page 155
4-14 Strain Hardening of Single Crystals......Page 156
Bibliography......Page 161
5.2 Observation of Dislocations......Page 162
5-3 Burger's Vector and the Dislocation Loop......Page 167
5-4 Dislocations in the Face-Centered Cubic Lattice......Page 171
5-6 Dislocations in the Body-Centered Cubic Lattice......Page 176
5-7 Stress Fields and Energies of Dislocations......Page 177
5-8 Forces on Dislocations......Page 181
5-9 Forces Between Dislocations......Page 182
5-10 Dislocation Climb......Page 185
5-11 Intersection af Dislocations......Page 187
5-12 Jogs......Page 189
5-13 Dislocation Sources......Page 192
5-14 Multiplication of Dislocations......Page 193
5-15 Dislocation-Point Defect Interactions......Page 196
5-16 Dislocation Pile-Ups......Page 198
Bibliography......Page 200
6-1 Introduction......Page 201
6-2 Grain Boundaries and Deformation......Page 202
6-3 Strengthening From Grain Boundaries......Page 205
6-4 Low-Angle Grain Boundaries......Page 210
6-5 Yield-Point Phenomenon......Page 214
6-6 Strain Aging......Page 218
6-7 Solid-Solution Strengthening......Page 220
6-8 Deformation of Two-Phase Aggregates......Page 225
6-9 Strengthening from Fine Particles......Page 229
6-10 Fiber Strengthening......Page 237
6-11 Strengthening Due to Point Defects......Page 243
6-12 Martensite Strengthening......Page 244
6-13 Cold-Worked Structure......Page 246
6-14 Strain Hardening......Page 248
6-15 Annealing of Cold-Worked Metal......Page 250
6-16 Bauschinger Effect......Page 253
6-17 Preferred Orientation (Texture)......Page 254
Bibliography......Page 257
7-1 Introduction......Page 258
7-2 Types of Fracture in Metals......Page 259
7-3 Theoretical Cohesive Strength of Metals......Page 260
7-4 Griffith Theory of Brittle Fracture......Page 263
7-5 Fracture of Single Crystals......Page 267
7-6 Metallographic Aspects of Fracture......Page 268
7-7 Fractography......Page 271
7-8 Dislocation Theories of Brittle Fracture......Page 273
7-9 Ductile Fracture......Page 279
7-10 Notch Effects......Page 282
7-11 Concept of the Fracture Curve......Page 285
7-12 Fracture Under Combined Stresses......Page 287
7-13 Effect of High Hydrostatic Pressure on Fracture......Page 288
Bibliography......Page 289
8-1 Engineering Stress-Strain Curve......Page 291
8-2 True-Stress - True-Strain Curve......Page 299
8-3 Instability in Tension......Page 305
8-4 Stress Distribution at the Neck......Page 308
8-5 Ductility Measurement in Tension Test......Page 309
8-6 Effect of Strain Rate on Flow Properties......Page 311
8-7 Effect of Temperature on Flow Properties......Page 317
8-8 Influence of Testing Machine on Flow Properties......Page 320
8-9 Constitutive Equations......Page 322
8-10 Further Consideration of Instability......Page 323
8-11 Stress-Relaxation Testing......Page 325
8-12 Thermally Activated Deformation......Page 326
8-13 Notch Tensile Test......Page 330
8-14 Tensile Properties of Steel......Page 332
8-15 Anisotropy of Tensile Properties......Page 338
Bibliography......Page 340
9-1 Introduction......Page 341
9-2 Brinell Hardness......Page 342
9-3 Meyer Hardness......Page 343
9-4 Analysis of Indentation by an Indenter......Page 344
9-5 Relationship Between Hardness and the Flow Curve......Page 345
9-6 Vickers Hardness......Page 347
9-7 Rockwell Hardness Test......Page 348
9-8 Microhardness Tests......Page 350
9-9 Hardness-Conversion Relationships......Page 351
9-10 Hardness at Elevated Temperatures......Page 352
Bibliography......Page 353
10-1 Introduction......Page 354
10-2 Mechanical Properties in Torsion......Page 355
10-3 Torsional Stresses for Large Plastic Strains......Page 357
10-4 Types of Torsion Failures......Page 359
10-5 Torsion Test vs. Tension Test......Page 360
10-6 Hot Torsion Testing......Page 361
Bibliography......Page 363
11-1 Introduction......Page 364
11-2 Strain-Energy Release Rate......Page 365
11-3 Stress Intensity Factor......Page 367
11-4 Fracture Toughness and Design......Page 369
11-5 Kic Plane-Strain Toughness Testing......Page 372
11-6 Plasticity Corrections......Page 376
11-7 Crack-Opening Displacement......Page 378
11-8 J-Integral......Page 380
11-9 R-Curve......Page 384
11-10 Probabalistic Aspects of Fracture Mechanics......Page 385
11-11 Toughness of Materials......Page 388
Bibliography......Page 390
12-1 Introduction......Page 391
12-2 Stress Cycles......Page 392
12-3 The S-N Curve......Page 394
12-4 Statistical Nature of Fatigue......Page 396
12-5 Effect of Mean Stress on Fatigue......Page 398
12-6 Cyclic Stress-Strain Curve......Page 403
12-7 Low-Cycle Fatigue......Page 406
12-8 Strain-Life Equation......Page 408
12-9 Structural Features of Fatigue......Page 410
12-10 Fatigue Crack Propagation......Page 414
12-11 Effect of Stress Concentration on Fatigue......Page 418
12-12 Size Effect......Page 422
12-13 Surface Effects and Fatigue......Page 423
12-14 Fatigue Under Combined Stresses......Page 428
12-15 Cumulative Fatigue Damage and Sequence Effects......Page 429
12-16 Effect of Metallurgical Variables on Fatigue......Page 431
12-17 Design for Fatigue......Page 435
12-18 Machine Design Approach - Infinite-Life Design......Page 437
12-19 Local Strain Approach......Page 438
12-20 Corrosion Fatigue......Page 441
12-21 Effect of Temperature on Fatigue......Page 444
Bibliography......Page 446
13-1 The High-Temperature Materials Problem......Page 448
13-2 Time-Dependent Mechanical Behavior......Page 450
13-3 The Creep Curve......Page 454
13-4 The Stress-Rupture Test......Page 457
13-5 Structural Changes During Creep......Page 458
13-6 Mechanisms of Creep Deformation......Page 461
13-7 Deformation Mechanism Maps......Page 465
13-8 Activation Energy for Steady-State Creep......Page 466
13-9 Superplasticity......Page 468
13-10 Fracture at Elevated Temperature......Page 469
13-11 High-Temperature Alloys......Page 473
13-12 Presentation of Engineering Creep Data......Page 475
13-13 Prediction of Long-Time Properties......Page 477
13-14 Creep Under Combined Stress......Page 481
13-15 Creep-Fatigue Interaction......Page 482
Bibliography......Page 486
14-1 The Brittle-Fracture Problem......Page 487
14-2 Notched-Bar Impact Tests......Page 488
14-3 Instrumented Charpy Test......Page 491
14-4 Significance of Transition-Temperature Curve......Page 492
14-5 Metallurgical Factors Affecting Transition Temperature......Page 494
14-6 Drop-Weight Test and Other Large-Scale Tests......Page 499
14-7 Fracture Analysis Diagram......Page 502
14-8 Temper Embrittlement......Page 505
14-9 Environment Sensitive Fracture......Page 506
14-10 Flow and Fracture Under Very Rapid Rates of Loading......Page 512
Bibliography......Page 515
15-1 Classification of Forming Processes......Page 518
15-2 Mechanics of Metalworking......Page 521
15-3 Flow-Stress Determination......Page 534
15-4 Temperature in Metalworking......Page 539
15-5 Strain-Rate Effects......Page 545
15-6 Metallurgical Structure......Page 547
15-7 Friction and Lubrication......Page 554
15-8 Deformation-Zone Geometry......Page 564
15-9 Hydrostatic Pressure......Page 565
15-10 Workability......Page 569
15-11 Residual Stresses......Page 572
15-12 Experimental Techniques for Metalworking Processes......Page 574
15-13 Computer-Aided Manufacturing......Page 576
Bibliography......Page 578
16-1 Classification of Forging......Page 579
16-2 Forging Equipment......Page 582
16-3 Forging in Plane Strain......Page 586
16-4 Open-Die Forging......Page 590
16-5 Closed-Die Forging......Page 592
16-7 Forging Defects......Page 596
16-8 Powder Metallurgy Forging......Page 598
Bibliography......Page 600
17-1 Classification of Rolling Processes......Page 601
17-2 Rolling Mills......Page 602
17-3 Hot-Rolling......Page 605
17-4 Cold-Rolling......Page 606
17-5 Rolling of Bars and Shapes......Page 607
17-6 Forces and Geometrical Relationships in Rolling......Page 608
17-7 Simplified Analysis of Rolling Load: Rolling Variables......Page 612
17-8 Problems and Defects in Rolled Products......Page 616
17-9 Rolling-Mill Control......Page 621
17-10 Theories of Cold Rolling......Page 622
17-11 Theories of Hot Rolling......Page 626
17-12 Torque and Power......Page 627
Bibliography......Page 630
18-1 Classification......Page 631
18-2 Extrusion Equipment......Page 633
18-3 Hot Extrusion......Page 635
18-4 Deformation, Lubrication, and Defects in Extrusion......Page 637
18-5 Analysis of the Extrusion Process......Page 640
18-7 Hydrostatic Extrusion......Page 645
18-8 Extrusion of Tubing......Page 646
Bibliography......Page 649
19-2 Rod and Wiredrawing......Page 650
19-3 Analysis of Wiredrawing......Page 654
19-4 Tube-Drawing Processes......Page 661
19-5 Analysis of Tube Drawing......Page 662
19-6 Residual Stresses in Rod, Wire, and Tubes......Page 663
Bibliography......Page 665
20-1 Introduction......Page 666
20-2 Forming Methods......Page 668
20-3 Shearing and Blanking......Page 672
20-4 Bending......Page 674
20-5 Stretch Forming......Page 677
20-6 Deep Drawing......Page 681
20-7 Forming Limit Criteria......Page 688
20-8 Defects in Formed Parts......Page 691
Bibliography......Page 693
21-1 Types of Machining Operations......Page 694
21-2 Mechanisms of Machining......Page 696
21-3 Three-Dimensional Machining......Page 705
21-4 Temperature in Metal Cutting......Page 707
21-5 Cutting Fluids......Page 708
21-6 Tool Materials and Tool Life......Page 709
21-7 Grinding Processes......Page 714
21-8 Nontraditional Machining Processes......Page 719
21-9 Economics of Machining......Page 720
Bibliography......Page 723
A. The International System of Units......Page 724
B. Problems......Page 727
Answers to Selected Problems......Page 749
Name Index......Page 754
Subject Index......Page 762