Meat and Meat Replacements: An Interdisciplinary Assessment of Current Status and Future Directions

Front Cover
MEAT AND MEAT REPLACEMENTS
MEAT AND MEAT REPLACEMENTS
Copyright
Contents
Contributors
1 -
Introduction
	1 - Introduction: general overview of meat analogues and meat replacers
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 Historical perspective of meat consumption
			1.2.1 Environmental impact of meat consumption
			1.2.2 Sustainable alternatives
		1.3 New trends in meat products
			1.3.1 Meat analogues
			1.3.2 Meat replacers and protein extenders
		1.4 Considerations to develop new meat products
			1.4.1 Quality
			1.4.2 Nutritional value
			1.4.3 Consumer acceptance
			1.4.4 Environmental impact and economic value
		1.5 Conclusions
		References
	2 - Cellular agriculture and human dietary evolution-a view from the Anthropocene
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Prehistoric evidence and narratives about the origins of hominin carnivory
		2.3 Narratives of complexity in the diet of prehistoric Homo sapiens
		2.4 Exploring cellular agriculture as the future of carnivory in the anthropocene
		2.5 Conclusion
		References
2 -
Meat and meat replacements food science
	3 - Meat and meat products: animal species, products, processing, quality, and shelf life
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Global meat production and animal species
		3.3 Processing of meat products
			3.3.1 Burgers
			3.3.2 Marinated cuts
			3.3.3 Sausages (fresh, fermented, and cooked)
			3.3.4 Dry-cured meats (ham, lacón, loin, and cecina)
			3.3.5 Liver pâté
			3.3.6 Corned beef
			3.3.7 Nuggets
		3.4 Quality decay and shelf life of meat products
		3.5 Conclusion and future perspective
		Acknowledgments
		References
	4 - Consumer response to red meat—implementing strategies during animal production or postmortem processing to impr ...
		4.1 Antemortem
			4.1.1 Genetics/breed
				4.1.1.1 Beef
				4.1.1.2 Lamb
				4.1.1.3 Pork
			4.1.2 Diet/nutrition
				4.1.2.1 Beef
				4.1.2.2 Lamb
			4.1.3 Growth promotants
				4.1.3.1 Beef
				4.1.3.2 Pork
			4.1.4 Animal age
				4.1.4.1 Beef
				4.1.4.2 Lamb
			4.1.5 Grading systems—using marbling to predict eating quality
				4.1.5.1 Beef
				4.1.5.2 Lamb
				4.1.5.3 Pork
		4.2 Postmortem
			4.2.1 Aging
				4.2.1.1 Length of postmortem aging
				4.2.1.2 Dry versus wet aging
			4.2.2 Enhancement
			4.2.3 Packaging
			4.2.4 Degree of doneness and cooking method
		References
3 -
Meat and meat replacement nutrition
	5 - The nutritional characteristics and health-oriented advances of meat and meat products
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Strategies to improve the health properties of meat and meat products
			5.2.1 Improvement in the nutritional quality of meat by modifying the animals\' diet
			5.2.2 Sodium reduction in meat products
			5.2.3 Fat reduction and modification of the lipid profile of meat products
			5.2.4 Phosphate and nitrite reduction in meat products
			5.2.5 Incorporation of compounds with health benefits
		5.3 Final remarks
		Acknowledgments
		References
	6 - Nutritional aspects and trends of meat replacement products
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Nutritional considerations and impacts of reducing or removing meat from the diet
			6.2.1 General overview
			6.2.2 Carbohydrates
			6.2.3 Lipids
			6.2.4 Proteins
			6.2.5 Vitamins
			6.2.6 Minerals
			6.2.7 Water
		6.3 Global market trends of meat replacement food products
		6.4 Conclusion
		References
	7 - Nutritional and health value of plant-based meat alternatives
		7.1 A new market
		7.2 Value of legumes
		7.3 Processed plant protein foods from the past
		7.4 A new focus
		7.5 Are the new meat alternatives healthy and nutritious?
		7.6 Nutritional comparisons
		7.7 Analyses of wide selection of meat alternatives
		7.8 Are meat alternatives ultra-processed foods
		7.9 Composition of meat alternatives
		7.10 Concerns regarding sustainability
		7.11 How do meat alternatives compare?
		7.12 Life cycle assessment
		7.13 Cultured meat
		7.14 What of the future?
		7.15 Summary
		References
4 -
Ethical considerations for meats and meat replacements
	8 - Ethics in meat production
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Is the consumption of meat morally justified?
		8.3 How do beliefs, especially religious beliefs, influence moral attitudes toward the consumption of meat?
		8.4 The value of human beings
		8.5 The right of food security
		8.6 Is it morally justified to sacrifice the life of animals for human needs?
		8.7 Is welfare the right answer to animal rights claims?
		8.8 Is meat production environmentally sustainable?
		8.9 Conclusions
		References
	9 - Ethical aspects of meat alternative products
		9.1 The issues of meat production in a climate-changing world
			9.1.1 Climate change: a global overview
			9.1.2 Meat production and carbon footprint
			9.1.3 Meat production and alternative meats
		9.2 Alternative meat products: how to produce meat without damaging the planet
		9.3 Production of alternative meat products
			9.3.1 Sustainable meat production
				9.3.1.1 Extensive meat
				9.3.1.2 Reduced carbon footprint meat
				9.3.1.3 Local meat
			9.3.2 Organic meat
			9.3.3 Cultured meat
		9.4 Consumer acceptance of alternative meat products
			9.4.1 Climate change and the environment
			9.4.2 Animal welfare
			9.4.3 Food safety
			9.4.4 Naturalness
			9.4.5 Sensory quality
			9.4.6 Food neophobia
		9.5 Environmental and ethical aspects
		References
	10 - Ethics of meat alternatives
		10.1 The case for meat alternatives
			10.1.1 Slaughter-based meat
				10.1.1.1 Animals
				10.1.1.2 Environment
				10.1.1.3 In defense of slaughter-based meat?
			10.1.2 Plant-based systems
		10.2 Plant-based meat
		10.3 Cultivated meat
		10.4 Insects
		10.5 Concluding remarks
		References
	11 - The ethics of consuming meat
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Consuming factory-farmed meat
			11.2.1 Causal impotence?
			11.2.2 Complicity
			11.2.3 Offsetting
		11.3 Humane farming
		11.4 Hunting
		References
5 -
Consumer response to meats and meat replacements
	12 - Meat alternatives: are we losing our taste for eating animals?
		12.1 The case against factory farming
			12.1.1 Environmental
			12.1.2 Public health
			12.1.3 Animal suffering
		12.2 Public policy turns away from meat
			12.2.1 Dietary guidelines
				12.2.1.1 Canada
				12.2.1.2 Sweden
				12.2.1.3 Netherlands
				12.2.1.4 China
			12.2.2 Agricultural subsidies
				12.2.2.1 The European Union
				12.2.2.2 United Kingdom
			12.2.3 Public food outlets
				12.2.3.1 France
				12.2.3.2 Denmark
			12.2.4 Meat tax
				12.2.4.1 Germany
			12.2.5 Potential for backlash without alternatives
		12.3 The rise of alternative proteins
			12.3.1 Whole plant foods
			12.3.2 Entomophagy
			12.3.3 Plant-based meat
			12.3.4 Cultured meat
		12.4 How society will change its mind
			12.4.1 The social construction of “edible” and “ethical”
			12.4.2 Meat and motivated reasoning
			12.4.3 The shifting pros and cons of meat avoidance
			12.4.4 Reaching a new normal
		12.5 Conclusion
		References
	13 - Consumer perceptions of different protein alternatives
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Development of consumer view to protein sources in food
		13.3 Dimensions where meat and alternatives vary
		13.4 Mimicking meat
			13.4.1 Classification of proteins on this dimension
				13.4.1.1 Analogues
				13.4.1.2 Nonanalogues
				13.4.1.3 Hybrids
		13.5 Level of processing
			13.5.1 Classification of proteins on this dimension
				13.5.1.1 Unprocessed
				13.5.1.2 Minimally processed
				13.5.1.3 Medium levels of processing; processed culinary ingredients and processed foods
				13.5.1.4 Highly processed
			13.5.2 What are consumer issues around level of processing?
				13.5.2.1 Naturalness and technophobia
				13.5.2.2 Trust in food industry
		13.6 Plant-based versus animal-based protein the origin
			13.6.1 Classification of proteins on this dimension
			13.6.2 What are consumer issues on this dimension and what underlying theories relate to this
		13.7 Novelty of protein origin
			13.7.1 Classification of proteins on this dimension
			13.7.2 What are consumer issues on this dimension and what underlying theories relate to this
		13.8 Looking at protein from different points of view
			13.8.1 Pulses
			13.8.2 Plant-based meat analogues
			13.8.3 Insects
			13.8.4 Cultured meat
		13.9 General reflection and how to go into the future
		References
6 -
Environmental effects of meats and meat replacements
	14 - Environmental impacts of meat and meat replacements
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Life cycle assessment of food
			14.2.1 Purpose
			14.2.2 Principles
			14.2.3 Challenges
		14.3 Environmental impacts of meat
			14.3.1 Impact variability of meat
			14.3.2 Impact hotspots
			14.3.3 Opportunities for improvement
		14.4 Environmental impacts of conventional meat replacements
			14.4.1 Seafood
				14.4.1.1 Impacts compared to meat
				14.4.1.2 Impact hotspots
				14.4.1.3 Opportunities for improvement
				14.4.1.4 Gaps
			14.4.2 Eggs
				14.4.2.1 Impacts compared to meat
				14.4.2.2 Impact hotspots
				14.4.2.3 Trade-offs between production systems
				14.4.2.4 Development over time
				14.4.2.5 Opportunities for improvement
			14.4.3 Tofu and tempeh
				14.4.3.1 Impacts compared to meat
				14.4.3.2 Impact hotspots
				14.4.3.3 Differences between production systems
				14.4.3.4 Opportunities for improvement
			14.4.4 Pulses and nuts
				14.4.4.1 Impacts compared to meat
				14.4.4.2 Impact hotspots
				14.4.4.3 Opportunities for improvement
		14.5 Environmental impacts of emerging meat replacements
			14.5.1 Plant-based meat analogs
				14.5.1.1 Definition
				14.5.1.2 Impacts compared to meat
				14.5.1.3 Impact hotspots
				14.5.1.4 Opportunities for improvement
				14.5.1.5 Gaps
			14.5.2 Algae
				14.5.2.1 Definition
				14.5.2.2 Impacts compared to meat
				14.5.2.3 Impact hotspots
				14.5.2.4 Opportunities for improvement
				14.5.2.5 Gaps
			14.5.3 Mycoprotein
				14.5.3.1 Definition
				14.5.3.2 Impacts compared to meat
				14.5.3.3 Impact hotspots
				14.5.3.4 Opportunities for improvement
				14.5.3.5 Gaps
			14.5.4 Insects
				14.5.4.1 Definition
				14.5.4.2 Impacts compared to meat
				14.5.4.3 Impact hotspots
				14.5.4.4 Opportunities for improvement
				14.5.4.5 Gaps
			14.5.5 Cultured meat
				14.5.5.1 Definition
				14.5.5.2 Impacts compared to meat
				14.5.5.3 Impact hotspots
				14.5.5.4 Opportunities for improvement
				14.5.5.5 Gaps
		14.6 Conclusions and outlook
		References
Index
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	Q
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	T
	U
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	Z
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