Marine Protected Areas: Science, Policy and Management

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Marine Protected Areas: Science, Policy And Management
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Dedication
Contributors
Foreword: Progress towards the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans: targets and challenges
	Introduction
	Global targets and processes
		Aichi biodiversity targets
		Sustainable development goals
		Conservation of biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction
	Performance against targets
	Post-2020 biodiversity agenda
	References
Preface
Acknowledgements
List of abbreviations
Policy
1. A critical history of marine protected areas
	Development of MPA policy and extent
	Developing conceptions of marine protected area
	Future extent and character of MPAs
	Conclusion
	References
2. Marine protected areas and marine spatial planning – allocation of resource use and environmental protection
	Introduction
		The drivers behind MPA designation and MSP adoption
		The importance of scale and management response
		A brief history of MPA development
		A brief history of MSP development
	How the aims of MPAs can be assisted by MSP
	How MPAs can assist in the delivery of MSP
	From data to information, to insights, to decision-making
	More than the sum of its parts
	Moving the goal posts or upping the game?
		Dynamic ocean management
		Real time closures
		Real time incentives
	Future-proofing marine protection
		Scenario analysis
		Improving feature-based protection
	The need for integration
		Co-location and space partitioning: considering displacement of activities
	Political imperative
	Conclusions
	Disclaimer
	References
3. Challenges facing marine protected areas in Southern African countries in light of expanding ocean economies across the sub ...
	Introduction
	The Southern African ocean and coastal environment
		The offshore environment
		The coastal environment
	Existing and future MPAS in the Southern African region
		Angola
		Namibia
		South Africa
		Mozambique
	Discussion
		The role of Southern African MPAs
		Management effectiveness of Southern African MPAs
		Challenges facing MPAs in the Southern African region
	References
4. The South Orkney Islands Southern Shelf Marine Protected Area: towards the establishment of marine spatial protection withi ...
	Introduction
		Marine protected areas as a tool for conservation in the Southern Ocean
		Historical exploitation in the Southern Ocean
		CCAMLR's management of Southern Ocean fisheries
		CCAMLR's management of the krill fishery
		Moving towards enhanced spatial management of the krill fishery
	Bioregionalisation and systematic conservation planning
	Background to the South Orkneys southern shelf MPA
		Description of the region
			Physical environment
			Biogeography
			Benthic ecology and biodiversity
			Pelagic ecology and biodiversity
		Scientific activities
		Threats to the ecosystem
			Demersal fisheries
			Pelagic fisheries
		Regional conservation objectives to be achieved by MPAs in Subarea 48.2
			Protection of representative areas
			Protection of key ecosystem processes and critical life history stages
			Protection of scientific reference areas
			Protection of vulnerable areas
			Maintenance of ecosystem function
			Increase resilience to climate change
		Specific conservation objectives for the SOI SS MPA
			Protection of representative benthic areas
			Protection of representative pelagic areas
			Protection of areas important to critical life history stages for Adélie penguins
			Provision of a scientific reference area
		Developing a research and monitoring plan for the SOI SS MPA
			Benthic research and monitoring
			Pelagic research and monitoring
		Potential for extending the SOI SS MPA in the future
	Developing the general framework for establishing MPAs in the CAMLR Convention Area
	Falling short of the ambition
	The future of MPAs within the CCAMLR Convention Area
	References
5. Uneasy bedfellows: fisheries and the search for space for Marine Conservation Zones in English waters
	Introduction
	Marine Conservation Zones in English waters
	Stakeholder negotiation
	Role of evidence
	Post regional project developments
	Mud, glorious mud
	Discussion
		Prioritising ecological criteria over human use considerations
		Stakeholder participation
		Evidence
		Broader horizons
	References
6. The role of coastal communities in the sustainable management of marine protected areas
	Introduction
	The wider social, economic and political context in which MPAs exist
	The relationship between coastal communities and MPAs
	Is co-management providing to be effective?
	A suggested way forward
		Local participation and leadership
		Local economic development
		Diversity of approaches and ownership models
	Conclusions
	References
7. The use of natural capital in the choice, management and evaluation of MPAs
	Introduction
		Natural and financial capital
		Estimating the monetary value of the natural capital of an MPA
		Use as a comparator and offsetting
	Marine natural capital and MPA sustainability
	Evaluating the natural capital of an MPA
	Natural capital in action
		MPA choice and establishment
		Extension of fishing rights
		Infrastructure developments
		Pollution risk assessments
		The investment potential of MPAs
	Conclusions
	References
8. Some consequences of policy instabilities for marine protected area management
	Introduction
	Area targets and changing technical requirements
	Staged approach to MPA designation
	Legal uncertainty
	Discussion
	Conclusion
	References
9. Managing marine protected areas in Europe: moving from ‘feature-based’ to ‘whole-site’ management of sites
	Introduction
	The facts as they are today for managing UK MPAs
	The lack of controls to understand what we are conserving for
	Moving from management of ‘features’ to ‘habitat mosaics’ within MPAs
	Providing opportunities for wider ecosystem recovery (‘not just the seabed’)
	Protect the future
	The burden of proof
	Effective timescales and area protected – enabling other measures (e.g. the Marine Strategy Framework Directive – MSFD)
	Managing ephemeral habitats
	Benefits of listing features?
		Article 6(3) of the Habitats Directive
	Does biodiversity ‘stop’ at boundaries between features?
	Commercial fish are part of the picture
	Practical application of this research in Berwickshire and North Northumberland SAC (BNNSAC)
	Recommendations
	Conclusions
	References
10. The role of UK Marine Protected Area management in contributing to sustainable development in the marine environment
	A brief history of the development of UK environmental policy relevant to nature conservation
		Marine Protected Areas
		Marine environmental quality
		Marine planning
		Natural capital and ecosystem services
	Progress and challenges in achieving conservation objectives
	The opportunities
	References
11. The law and marine protected areas: different regimes and their practical impacts in England
	Introduction
	Statutory basis for designation and management of European marine sites established under the Nature Directives
		Overview of Nature Directives
		Designation of EMSs
		Management of EMSs
	Designation and management of MPAs under the Marine Strategy Framework Directive
		Overview of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive
		MPAs under the Marine Strategy Framework Directive
	Comparison of Nature Directives and Marine Strategy Framework Directive provision for MPAs
	Case study: MPA management in England
		Transposition of the Nature Directives in the marine context in the UK
		Transposition of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive in the UK
		Comparison of EMSs and English MCZs
			Site selection – English MCZs
			Comparison of designation and de-designation processes for English MCZs and EMSs
			Site management – English MCZs
			Comparison of site management provisions for English MCZs and EMSs
			Monitoring and reporting
			The role of socioeconomic considerations
	The UK's exit from the European Union
	Conclusion
	Disclosure
	References
12. Marine protected areas in the UK – conservation or recovery?
	Introduction
	History of MPA development in the UK
		Voluntary Marine Nature Reserves
		Marine Nature Reserves (Wildlife and Countryside Act, 1981)
		European Marine Sites (EU Habitats Directive, Birds Directive)
			Management of European Marine Sites
		Marine Conservation Zones (Marine and Coastal Access Act)
			Socio-economic considerations
			MCZ site selection and commercial fishing
			Fishing activity as an indicator of ecological distinctiveness
			An invisible gap in the network?
			Will the MPA network deliver recovery?
			Lyme Bay Statutory Instrument – a de facto site-based management approach
	Conclusions
	References
13. South Africa's Tsitsikamma Marine Protected Area – winners and losers
	Introduction
		Evidence-based decision-making
		South Africa's policy commitment to evidence-based decision-making
		History of management in the Tsitsikamma Marine Protected Area
		The ecological system and threatened fish species
		History of stakeholder engagement
		Decision process to date
		Evaluation of the process
	Methods
		Seven management scenarios
		Structuring the objectives
		Multi-criteria decision analysis
	Results
		Performance values and weights are known with certainty
		Known performance values, uncertain weights
		Uncertain performance values and uncertain weights
	Discussion
	Conclusions
	References
	Appendix
Management
14. Developing a fisheries management plan for the Pitcairn Islands Marine Reserve
	Introduction
	Fisheries within the Coastal Conservations Areas
	Fishing pressures
	Data deficiencies
	Towards a management strategy
	Locally-managed marine area
	Conclusions
	References
15. Countering the threat of invasive species to the Galapagos marine reserve
	Introduction
	Identifying the problem
	Awareness raising
	Workshops
	Monitoring
	Conclusions
	References
16. Balancing rural development and robust nature conservation – lessons learnt from Kosterhavet Marine National Park, Sweden
	Kosterhavet marine national park – background and context
		History of KHNP
			The Koster-Väderö Fjord fisheries agreement
			Creation of the national park
		Governance of KHNP
		Regional collaboration
	Economic benefits of the national park
		Regional socio-economic context
		Benefits to small-scale fisheries
			The region's fisheries sector
			Fisheries in KHNP
		Aquaculture – research and innovation
		Tourism benefits
			The regional tourism sector
			Tourism in KHNP
			Untapped potential for tourism benefits
		Other economic benefits
	The role of governance
		Management measures to ensure sustainable use
			Fisheries management measures
			Algae cultivation
			Tourism measures
		The KHNP management model – successes and remaining challenges
			Local synergies
			Conflict resolution
		Remaining challenges
			Untapped synergies
			Unresolved conflict due to lack of coordinated marketing of KHNP
			Park management jobs and contracts – who reaps the benefits?
			Whether to develop the Koster islands or not
			Genuine stakeholder participation, or window dressing
	Comparing the costs with the benefits
	Case conclusions and lessons learnt
		Lessons from the planning, establishment and management of KHNP
			Lesson #1: Engaging local stakeholders during the planning of an MPA, and in day-to-day management, can improve stakeholder ...
			Lesson #2: Sustained stakeholder participation can be achieved by respecting the legitimacy and integrity of all stakeholde ...
			Lesson #3: Ensuring fair representation of people from the local community in MPA management and maintenance roles will fur ...
			Lesson #4: Specific measures at local, regional and national level can help create the conditions for the economic benefits ...
			Lesson #5: MPAs that operate within a maritime spatial planning process can use it to provide greater clarity on spatial as ...
			Lesson #6: Thinking carefully about storytelling and a long-term marketing approach for the MPA from the outset helps secur ...
			Lesson #7: Illustrating the scientific rationale behind conservation measures can create stakeholder support, mitigate conf ...
	Acknowledgements
	References
17. The Torre Guaceto marine protected area – what can we learn from this success story?
	Introduction
	The Torre Guaceto protected area and its history
	The important role of grassroots non-governmental organisations: the contribution of Slow Food
	The benefits deriving from a co-management approach of fishery
	The benefits to the tourism and agricultural sector
	Synergies
	Conflicts and lingering problems to solve
		‘Recreational’ fishing
		Gentrification?
		Criminality
	Financing the protected area
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
18. The challenges of establishing marine protected areas in South East Asia
	Introduction
		The issue
		Southeast Asia
	International policies and targets
		International targets relating to the protection of marine habitats
		Can we deliver on current targets?
		Do we have the manpower?
	What makes a successful MPA?
		No-take
		Enforced
		Large
		Isolated
	Governance
	Community buy-in
		Tourism
		Expectations and realities
	Conclusions
	References
19. Have you seen the dolphins? Dolphin watching participatory monitoring in a Brazilian multiple-use Marine Protected Area
	Introduction
	The Environmental Protected Area of Anhatomirim and its dolphin watch
	‘Have you seen the dolphins?’ The Dolphins Monitoring Program
		Methods
		Results and discussion
			Number of tourists
			Dolphin sightings
	‘Is this a partnership or an obligation?’ The boat tourism point of view
		Methods
		Results and discussion
			Relationship within the boat tourism sector
			Relationships between boat tourism and the EPAA
	Conclusions
	References
20. A new approach to monitoring Marine Protected Area Management Success in the Dutch Caribbean
	Introduction
	Background
		The Dutch Caribbean
		Conservation management
		Marine Protected Areas
		Regional network
		Conservation trust fund
	Management effectiveness
	Management Success: a new approach
		Principles
			Grass roots approach
			Biophysical monitoring
			Objective data
			High descriptive and analytical resolution
			Completeness
			Developmental stages
			Time series
		Framework
		Context (Box 20.3)
			Background
			Values
			Threats
		Capacity (Box 20.4)
			Human resources
			Financial resources
			Other resources
			Legal framework
			Physical resources
			Information resources
			Governance
	Activities
		Projects
			Other data
		Data collection
			Interview
			Desk study
			Social media
		Outputs
			Reporting
	Application
	Conclusion
		Successes and challenges
		The future
	References
21. Crossing jurisdictions: the implementation of offshore marine protected areas in an international fishery
	Background
	Survey methodology
		Surveying species and habitats
		Biodiversity analysis
		Biotope mapping
	Ecosystem services assessment
		Biological benefits
		Physical benefits
		Economic benefits
		Commercial fisheries
		Study conclusions
	Implementation
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
22. A net positive effect? Assessing the impact on fishing opportunities within multiple-use MPAs. A case study from Scotland
	Research context
		Background
		Fishing opportunities and MPAs
	Overview of spatial management and MPAs in Scotland
		Fishing industry opposition to MPAs
		Key fisheries considered
			Nephrops norvegicus
			The king scallop
	Methods
	Results
		Results by port
			Oban
			Tobermory (Isle of Mull)
			Kyle of Lochalsh
			Mallaig
			Ullapool
			Stornoway
		Tarbert
			Tayvallich
	Discussion
	Conclusions
	References
23. Managing a dredge fishery within a marine protected area: resolving environmental and socio-economic objectives
	The Poole Harbour clam and cockle fishery
	The new approach
	New management
	Fishery accreditations
	Conclusion
	References
24. Marine protected areas - the importance of positive partnerships and stakeholder engagement for delivering environmental ou ...
	Poole Harbour's habitats
	Marine protected areas
	The habitats and species regulations
	Condition of Poole Harbour's habitats and wildlife
		Working with others to halt biodiversity decline - Natural England's conservation 21 strategy
			Putting people at the heart of the environment
			Creating resilient landscapes and seas
			Growing natural capital
		Enjoying the Harbour's natural environment without leading to recreational pressure
			Putting people at the heart of the environment
			Compiling the evidence in partnership
			Drivers for change
			Simple messaging
			Understanding users needs
			Reaching user groups
		Supporting a high economic value shellfishery within a sensitive environment
			Putting people at the heart of the environment and a resilient landscape
			Drivers for change
			Compiling the evidence
		Reaching the stakeholders
			Simple management solutions
			Understanding stakeholders needs
		Improving water quality-for the benefit of wildlife and people – Putting people at the heart of the environment; Resilient  ...
			Drivers for change
			Building the evidence
			Reaching the stakeholders
				Understanding stakeholders needs
			Simple messages
	Conclusion
	References
25. Enforcement capabilities and compliance in English Marine Protected Areas: the art of the possible
	Introduction
	Inshore MPAs in England
	Management in MPAs
	The responsibility for management of inshore MPAs in England
	Regulation to manage MPAs
	Examples of management in English inshore MPAs
		Kingmere marine conservation zone
	Bottom towed gear restriction in Dorset MPAs
	MPA fisheries byelaws in English MPAs
	Assets to implement MPA compliance
	Current levels of enforcement in English inshore MPAs
	MPA infringements in English inshore MPAs – unknown
	Incentives and compliance in the management of inshore MPAs
		The potential economic gain from the activity
		The perceived risk of detection
		Level of fines
	Conclusions
	Conflict of Interest Statement
	References
Science
26 - Using science effectively: selection, design and management of marine protected areas
	Introduction
	Using science effectively?
		MPA goals
		Selection criteria (scientific or ecological)
			Introduction
			Presence of (or importance for) threatened or declining species and habitats/biotopes (including rarity)
			Rarity or uniqueness
			Presence of ‘important’ species or biotopes
			Ecological significance/special importance for life history stages
			(High natural) biological diversity
			Representativity
			Fragility, vulnerability and sensitivity/slow recovery of species and habitats
			Naturalness
		Selection criteria (practical/pragmatic criteria)
		Design criteria
			Viability/viable area
			Connectivity
			Replication
			Shape/boundary definition
	Management
		‘Designated features’
		Overlapping MPA types
		Informing management
		Answering questions
	What to do next
	MPAs are not enough
	Conclusion
	References
27. How new science should affect the application of protection measures for UK estuarine shorebirds
	Introduction
	Criteria for decision-making
	An example of testing for a significant effect
		Our approach
		The amount of disturbance on and alongside the estuary
		Assessing the significance of the disturbance inflicted on shorebirds
	Habituation
	Time available for feeding
	The new science and its implications
	Acknowledgements
	References
28. Verifying predictions of statistical models to define the size and shape of marine Special Protection Areas for foraging se ...
	Introduction
	Methods
		Study areas
		Survey methods
			Northumberland Marine SPA, Liverpool Bay SPA, Solent & Dorset Coast pSPA
			Poole Harbour SPA
			Teesmouth and Cleveland Coast pSPA
			Carlingford Lough pSPA and East Coast Northern Ireland pSPA
			Dungeness, Romney Marsh & Rye Bay SPA
	Results
		Northumberland Marine SPA
		Teesmouth and Cleveland Coast pSPA
		Liverpool Bay SPA
		Solent & Dorset Coast pSPA
		Poole Harbour SPA
		Carlingford Lough pSPA
		East Coast Northern Ireland pSPA (Strangford Lough)
		East Coast Northern Ireland pSPA (Larne Lough)
		Dungeness, Romney Marsh & Rye Bay SPA
	Discussion
		Different ‘modelling’ approaches
		Overview of results of verification surveys
		Seaward and alongshore extent
		Use of upriver areas and industrialised rivers
		Use of harbours/ports/marinas etc.
		Relative usage levels
		Absolute usage levels
		Identification of hotspots of usage
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
29. Developments in understanding of red-throated diver responses to offshore wind farms in marine Special Protection Areas
	Introduction
	Changes in survey methods
		Boat surveys
		Visual aerial surveys
		Digital aerial surveys
	Changes in analytical methods
		Describing abundance and distribution
		Displacement measures
	Changes in impact assessment over time
		Displacement extent
		Displacement magnitude
	Evidence requirements and gaps
	Conclusion
	References
30. Sediment transport and Marine Protected Areas
	Introduction
	Essentials of sediment transport
	Marine sediments and their characteristics
	Effects of sediment on MPA functioning
	Examples of MPAs affected by sediment
	Recommendations for future research
	References
31. On sediment dispersal in the Whitsand Bay Marine Conservation Zone: neighbour to a closed dredge-spoil disposal site
	Introduction
	Previous work
		Physical oceanography
		Dredge-spoil disposal
	Freshwater and SPM transport between the Tamar and the MCZ
		Modelled salinity and tracer in the MCZ
		Observed salinity and turbidity in the MCZ
	Using modelled tracer to represent SPM
		Neaps, springs and mean tides without winds
		Mean tides with winds
	3D particle dispersal in the bay
		November 2006 simulations – light winds, large tides
		December 2006 simulations – strong winds, large tides
		November 2006 LW-release simulations – light winds, large tides
	Deposited dredge-spoil sediment and bedload transport
		Tidal currents
		Wave-induced currents
			Oscillatory wave currents
			Stokes drift currents
			Longshore drift currents
	Is the Whitsand Bay MCZ a ‘natural’ habitat?
		Potential anthropogenic influences
		An indication of dredge-spoil movement from sediment grab samples
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
32. Maintaining ecological resilience on a regional scale: coastal saline lagoons in a northern European marine protected area
	Introduction
		Coastal lagoons
	Materials and methods
		Study area – Poole Harbour
			Brownsea Island lagoon
			Seymers lagoon (Brownsea island)
			Arne lagoon
			Poole Park lagoon
		Sampling benthic assemblages
		Pelagic species
		Abiotic measurements
		Data analysis
	Results
	Discussion
		Site evaluation
		Other potential lagoons
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
33. The adaptive capacity of the willow (Salix alba L.) to bridge the gap between MPAs and harbour entrances
	Introduction
	Review of the white willows' capacity to survive in tidal wetlands
		Salt tolerance
		Tolerance to increasing tidal flooding
	A supplemental study on white willows salt tolerance
		Method
		Results
			Effect of origin
			Effect of salinity
	Discussion
		Estuarine performance under increased salinity
		Effect of origin on salt tolerance
		Survival under increasing tidal flooding
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
34. Palaeoenvironmental determination of biogeochemistry and ecological response in an estuarine marine protected area
	Introduction
	Background
		Poole Harbour – Holes Bay
		Sediment cores as a record of change
	Methods
	A sedimentary record of Holes Bay industry
	Temporal variations in sediment, nutrient and ecological dynamics
		Phase 1 – ca. 1880–1940
		Phase 2 – ca. 1940–70
		Phase 3 – post ca. 1970s
	Summary
	Management implications
	References
35. Consequences of nitrate enrichment in a temperate estuarine marine protected area; response of the microbial primary produc ...
	Introduction: nutrient (nitrate) enrichment and bivalve production in the Poole Harbour MPA
	Environment Agency (EA – UK Government) phytoplankton data for Poole Harbour (1990–present)
	Bournemouth University (BU) phytoplankton data for Poole Harbour (2011–12 and 2017)
	Food standards agency (FSA) harmful algae monitoring (2001–17)
	Discussion: phytoplankton dynamics in Poole Harbour
	Water framework directive (WFD) monitoring; comparison with neighboring eutrophic waterbodies
	Nutritional factors affecting bivalve growth in the Poole Harbour MPA and the possible role of enhanced aquaculture product ...
	Interactions between enhanced bivalve aquaculture and the desired ecological functioning of the Poole Harbour MPA
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
36. Macroalgal mats in a eutrophic estuarine marine protected area: implications for benthic invertebrates and wading birds
	Introduction
		Primary production and macroalgae
		Mat-forming chlorophytes
		Development cycle of a macroalgal mat
		Impact of macroalgal mats on intertidal MPA habitats in the UK
		Benthic invertebrate response to environmental change
		Benthic invertebrate response to macroalgal mats
		Impact of macroalgal mats on wading bird benthic invertebrate prey
		Biomass and extent of macroalgal mats in Poole Harbour MPA
	Rationale
	Methods
		Site selection
		Macroalgal mat sampling and processing
		Mapping the extent of macroalgal mat coverage
		Between-site and between-date variation in % algae coverage and biomass from quadrats
		Benthic invertebrate sampling
		Between-site and between-date variation in algae biomass from core samples
		Spatial and temporal variation in invertebrate abundance
		Invertebrates as indicators of nutrient pollution
	Results
		Algae species
		Between-year and between-site variation in macroalgal mat biomass
			2013/2014
			2014/2015
		Mapping macroalgal mat coverage
		Between-year variation in % algae coverage
			Upper shore quadrat samples
			Estimated overall % coverage across each bay
		Between-site variation in % algae coverage
			Upper shore quadrat samples
			Estimated overall % coverage across each bay
		Relationship between upper shore and bay-wide % algae coverage
		Benthic invertebrate community
		Using benthic invertebrates as indicators of environmental stress
		The impact of algae biomass on overall benthic invertebrate abundance.
	Discussion
		Biomass
		Extent
		Using benthic invertebrates as indicators of environmental stress
		The impact of macroalgal mat biomass on overall invertebrate abundance - a threshold for Poole Harbour
	References
37. Assessing the benefits of shellfish aquaculture in improving water quality in Poole Harbour, an estuarine Marine Protected Area
	Introduction
	Methods
		Temperature and chlorophyll a
		Filtration potential
			Seasonal growth rates
			Filtration rates calculations
			Temperature and chlorophyll a index
			Chlorophyll a removal
		Assumptions
	Results
		Water temperature
		Chlorophyll a
		Filtration potential
		Chlorophyll a removal
	Discussion
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
38. Nitrogen pollution in coastal Marine Protected Areas: a river catchment partnership to plan and deliver targets in a UK est ...
	Background
	Partnership to identify the cause of the nitrogen problem and the solution for Poole Harbour
	Catchment wide partnership
	Multiple benefits
	Funding and partnership change
	Collecting evidence and monitoring progress
	Discussion
	References
Concluding remarks
39. Marine protected areas: Quo Vadis?
	Introduction
	Policy
	Management
	Science
	References
Index
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