Malarial Drug Delivery Systems: Advances in Treatment of Infectious Diseases

Preface
	Volume 1: MDDS
	Volume 2: TDDS
	Volume 3: VDDS
	Volume 4: IDDS
Contents
Global Health and Malaria: Past and Present
	1 Introduction
		1.1 What Is Plasmodium
		1.2 History of the Outbreak
		1.3 Evolution of Treatments
	2 Malaria Across the World
		2.1 Sub-Saharan Africa
		2.2 Northeast Asia
		2.3 Southeast Asia
		2.4 The Middle East
		2.5 The Americas
	3 Conclusion
	References
Malaria: Cellular Understanding of Disease
	1 Malaria and the Immune System
	2 Innate Immunity and Inflammatory Response
		2.1 Innate Response to Preerythrocytic Forms
		2.2 Innate Immune Response to Erythrocytic Forms
		2.3 Cellular Defenses in Malaria
			2.3.1 Hepatocytes
			2.3.2 Granulocytes
			2.3.3 Other Immune Cells
		2.4 Cytokine Response
	3 Adaptive Immunity to Malaria
		3.1 Adaptive Immunity in Preerythrocytic Infection
			3.1.1 Antibody Response to the Preerythrocytic-Stage Parasite
			3.1.2 Cell-Mediated Immune Response to the Preerythrocytic Parasite
		3.2 Adaptive Immune Response to Erythrocytic Stage Infection
			3.2.1 Mechanism of B-Cell and Antibody-Mediated Protection
			3.2.2 Mechanism of T-Cell-Mediated Protection
		3.3 Why Does Immunity Wane in the Absence of Exposure?
	4 The Role of Immune Response in the Pathogenesis of Cerebral Malaria
	5 Protective Autoimmunity in Malaria Infection
	6 Cellular Response to Malaria Vaccines
	7 Conclusion
	References
Antimalarial Drug Resistance: Trends, Mechanisms, and Strategies to Combat Antimalarial Resistance
	1 Introduction
	2 Spread of Antimalarial Drug Resistance
	3 Mechanism of Antimalarial Drug Resistance
		3.1 Chloroquine and Related Compounds
		3.2 Antifolate Compounds
		3.3 Atovaquone
		3.4 Artemisinin
		3.5 Doxycycline
		3.6 Clindamycin
	4 Molecular Marker of Antimalarial Drug Resistance
		4.1 Molecular Markers for Drug Resistance in P. falciparum
			4.1.1 pfcrt Gene
			4.1.2 pfmdr1 Gene
			4.1.3 pfmrp Gene
			4.1.4 Pfnhe-1 Gene
			4.1.5 pfdhps and pfdhfr Gene
			4.1.6 pfatp6 and Kelch 13 Gene
			4.1.7 Pfcytb Gene
		4.2 Molecular Markers for Drug Resistance in P. vivax
	5 Emerging Strategies to Combat Antimalarial Resistance
		5.1 Advancement on Existing Antimalarial
		5.2 New Drug Discovery and Development
		5.3 Malaria Vaccine
	6 Conclusion
	References
Malaria – Current Treatment Options
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Uncomplicated P. falciparum Malaria
		1.2 Severe P. falciparum Malaria
		1.3 Non-P. falciparum Malaria
		1.4 Special Populations
			1.4.1 Pediatric
			1.4.2 Maternal
	2 Antimalarial Agents
		2.1 Artemisinin Derivates
			2.1.1 Dihydroartemisinin (DHA)
			2.1.2 Artesunate
			2.1.3 Artemether
		2.2 Quinine Derivates
			2.2.1 Quinine
			2.2.2 Piperaquine
			2.2.3 Mefloquine
			2.2.4 Amodiaquine
		2.3 Antifolate
		2.4 Antimicrobial
	3 ACT Regimen Dose Recommendation According to WHO [2]
		3.1 Artemether-Lumefantrine (AL)
		3.2 Artesunate + Amodiaquine
		3.3 Artesunate + Mefloquine
		3.4 Artesunate + Sulfadozine-Pyrimethamine
		3.5 Dihydroartemisinin + Piperaquine
		3.6 Formulation Products Currently Available in the Market
	4 First-Line Therapy of Antimalarial Agent Regimen in the Several Countries Which Have High Malaria Prevalence
	5 Conclusion
	References
Polymeric Nanoparticles in Malaria
	1 Introduction
	2 Polymeric Nanoparticles (PNs)
		2.1 Method of Preparation
		2.2 Characterization
		2.3 Applications
	3 Polymeric Nanoparticles Loaded with Antimalarial Drugs
		3.1 Artemether
		3.2 Artesunate
		3.3 Dihydroartemisinin
		3.4 Lumefantrine
		3.5 PNs Loaded with Drug Combinations
	4 Conclusion
	References
Solid Lipid Nanoparticles in Malaria
	1 Introduction
	2 Nanoparticles as Drug Carriers
		2.1 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs)
		2.2 Structure of SLNs
		2.3 Characterization
		2.4 Methods of Preparation
			2.4.1 Hot Homogenization
			2.4.2 Cold Homogenization
		2.5 Applications
		2.6 SLNs for Delivery of Antimalarial Drugs
			2.6.1 Chloroquine
			2.6.2 Primaquine
			2.6.3 Dihydroartemisinin
			2.6.4 Arteether
			2.6.5 Artemether
			2.6.6 Lumefantrine
			2.6.7 Artesunate
		2.7 Other Antimalarials
		2.8 Artemether-Lumefantrine Combination
	3 Conclusion
	References
Dendrimers in Malaria
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Life Cycle of Plasmodium
		1.2 Current Treatment Available for Malaria
		1.3 Novel Drug Delivery Approaches for Treatment of Malaria
			1.3.1 Liposomes
			1.3.2 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles
			1.3.3 Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs)
			1.3.4 Micro/Nanoemulsions
			1.3.5 Polymeric Nanoparticles
			1.3.6 Nanocapsules (NCs)
	2 Dendrimers as Potential Carrier
		2.1 What Are Dendrimers?
		2.2 Mechanism of Drug Delivery
		2.3 Biocompatibility of Dendrimers
		2.4 Application of Dendrimers
	3 Dendrimers in Malaria
	4 Conclusion
	References
Liposomal Drug Delivery in Malaria
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Pathogenesis of Malaria
	2 Novel Strategies for Drug Targeting in Malaria Therapy
		2.1 Passive Drug Targeting with Conventional Nanocarriers
		2.2 Passive Drug targeting with Hydrophilic Surface-Modified Nanocarriers
	3 Lipid-Based Nanocarriers for Antimalarials Treatment
		3.1 Liposomes
		3.2 Conventional and Long-Circulating Neutral Liposomes
		3.3 Conventional and Long-Circulating Negatively Charged Liposomes
		3.4 Targeted liposomes for Antimalarials
		3.5 Peptide-Coated liposomes for Targeting
		3.6 Antibody-Bearing Liposomes
		3.7 Liposomes as Adjuvants for Malaria Vaccines
		3.8 Liposome-Based vaccines for Sporozoite-Stage Malaria
		3.9 Liposome-Based vaccines for Merozoites-Stage Malaria
		3.10 Liposome-Based vaccines for Zygotes and Ookinetes-Stage Malaria
	4 Biological Performance of Liposomes
	5 Challenges and Prospective of Liposomes over Conventional Therapy in Malaria
	6 Conclusion
	References
Potential of Micro-/Nanoemulsions as a Delivery Carrier to Treat Malaria
	1 Introduction
	2 Parasite and Vectors
		2.1 Types of Vector
	3 Prevention, Therapy, and Their Limitations
	4 Need of Nanotechnology in Antimalarial Therapy
	5 Nanotechnology in Prevention and Treatment of Malaria
	6 Emulsions for Antimalarial Drug Delivery
	7 Emulsions as Larvicidal
	8 Regulatory Prospects
	9 Future Aspects
	10 Conclusion
	References
Nanosuspensions in Treatment of Malaria
	1 Introduction to Malaria
	2 Role of Nanomedicines to Overcome Problems Associated with Conventional Antimalarial Therapy
		2.1 Passive Targeting and Active Targeting in Malaria
			2.1.1 Passive Targeting
			2.1.2 Active Targeting
		2.2 Nanoplatforms in Diagnosis and Vector Control
	3 Current Treatment Options in Malaria
		3.1 Nanosuspensions for the Treatment of Malaria
			3.1.1 Method of Preparation of Nanosuspension
		3.2 Formulation and Evaluation of Nanosuspension
			3.2.1 Formulation of Nanosuspension
				Stabilizer [41, 43]
				Organic Solvents
				Co-surfactants
				Other Additives
			3.2.2 Evaluation of Nanosuspension
			3.2.3 In Vivo Biological Performance
		3.3 Nanosuspensions for Antimalarial Drugs
	4 Conclusion
	References
Alginate-Gelatin Nanoparticles in Malaria
	1 Introduction
	2 Life Cycle of Malaria
	3 Challenges in Conventional Therapy
	4 Nanotechnology as a Tool for Malaria Treatment
	5 Alginate Nanoparticles
		5.1 Sources
		5.2 Structure and Composition
		5.3 Physicochemical Properties
		5.4 Method of Preparation
			5.4.1 Spray-Drying Technique
			5.4.2 Ionic Gelation Technique
			5.4.3 Emulsification Technique
			5.4.4 Covalent Cross-Linking Technique
			5.4.5 Polyelectrolyte Complexation Technique
			5.4.6 Self-Assembling Technique
	6 Gelatin Nanoparticles
		6.1 Gelatin Nanoparticles for Malaria
		6.2 Preparation Method for Gelatin Nanoparticles
			6.2.1 Desolvation Method
			6.2.2 Coacervation
			6.2.3 Solvent Evaporation Method
			6.2.4 Spontaneous Emulsification/Solvent Diffusion Method
			6.2.5 Nanoprecipitation Method
			6.2.6 Salting Out Method
	7 Future Perspective
	8 Conclusion
	References
Niosomes in Malaria
	1 Introduction
	2 The Way Forward for Combination Therapy with Correct Dosing
	3 Challenges and Awareness in Malaria
	4 Need of Nanotechnology and Nanomedicines
	5 Niosome as a Novel Vesicular System
		5.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Niosomes
		5.2 Contrasts Between Niosomes and Liposomes
		5.3 Classification of Niosomes
		5.4 Components of Niosomes
		5.5 Manufacturing Methods of Niosomes
		5.6 Characterization of Niosomes
	6 Niosomes in Drug Delivery Systems for Different Disorders
	7 Niosomal Drug Delivery for Malaria-Explored and Unexplored Areas
	8 Future Prospective of Niosomes and Malaria Treatment
	9 Conclusion
	References
Surface-Modified Drug Delivery Systems in Malaria
	1 Introduction
	2 The Role of Surface-Modified Drug Delivery System in Malaria
	3 An Overview Strategies for Surface Modification of Drug Delivery Systems
	4 Possible Molecular Targets/Receptors for Surface Modified DDSs in Malaria
		4.1 Plasmodium falciparum Erythrocyte Membrane Protein 1
		4.2 Plasmodium falciparum Erythrocyte Membrane Protein 3
		4.3 Plasmodium falciparum Skeleton Binding Protein 1
		4.4 Plasmodium falciparum Hexose/Glucose Transporter 1 and Plasmodium falciparum Formate-Nitrite Transporter
		4.5 Other Potential Cellular Targets for DDSs in Malaria
	5 Potential Target-Enabled Surface-Modified Drug Delivery Systems in Malaria
		5.1 Carbohydrate Surface-Modified Drug Delivery System
		5.2 Peptide and Protein Surface-Modified Drug Delivery Systems
		5.3 Antibody and Antibody-Like Ligand Surface-Modified Drug Delivery Systems
		5.4 Aptamer Surface-Modified Drug Delivery Systems
		5.5 Other Small Molecules Surface-Modified Drug Delivery Systems
	6 Conclusion
	References
Clinical Trials in Malaria
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Classification of Clinical Trials
		1.2 Clinical Trial Phases and Types of Trial Designs
		1.3 History of the New Antimalarial Drug Discovery Process and Their Preclinical/Clinical Evaluations
	2 Clinical Trials of Drugs Related to Malaria
		2.1 Drug Trials on Human Volunteers
		2.2 Drug Trials on Hospital Patients
		2.3 Pilot Field Trials
		2.4 Extended Field Trials
		2.5 Mass Drug Administration
	3 Current Scenario of Clinical Trials of New Antimalarial Drugs
		3.1 New Drugs in Clinical Development for Treatment
		3.2 New Drugs in Clinical Development for Prevention
		3.3 New Drugs to Prevent Relapse in Clinical Development
		3.4 New Drugs in for Transmission Blocking
		3.5 Repurposing of Antimicrobial Drugs for Malaria Treatment or Prevention
		3.6 New Adjunctive Therapies for the Treatment of Severe Malaria
	4 Clinical Trials of Vaccines
		4.1 Challenges in Selecting Suitable Malaria Vaccine Candidates
		4.2 Challenges in the Implementation Plan of Vaccine Trials
		4.3 Clinical Studies of Ongoing Blood-Stage Malaria Vaccines
	5 Future Directions and Opportunities
	6 Conclusion
	References
Potential of Herbal Drug Delivery in Treating Malaria
	1 Introduction
	2 Antimalarial Drug Resistance
	3 Use of Herbal Plants in the Treatment of Malaria
	4 Mechanism of Action of Herbal Drugs and Their Bioactive Phytoconstituents
	5 Current Status of the Medicinal Plants with Antimalarial Activity and Their Bioactive Compounds Undergoing Clinical Trials
		5.1 CoBaT-Y017
		5.2 N’Dribala Beverage
		5.3 PR 259 CT1
		5.4 Argemone Mexicana
		5.5 Artemisinin-Based Combination Therapies
	6 Recent Advances in Antimalarial Drug Delivery Systems
	7 Selective Herbal Actives in Drug Delivery Form
		7.1 Liposomes
		7.2 Polymers
		7.3 Nanoparticles
	8 Conclusion
	References
Exploration on Metal Nanoparticles for Treatment of Malaria
	1 Introduction
	2 Prevalence of Malaria
	3 Pathogenesis of Malaria
	4 Diagnosis and Treatment Strategies
	5 Drug Resistance and Malaria
	6 Nanotechnology and Malaria
	7 Metal-Based Nanoparticles
	8 Preparation Methods of Metallic Nanoparticle
	9 Applications of Metallic Nanoparticles in Malaria
		9.1 Silver Nanoparticles in Malaria
		9.2 Gold Nanoparticles in Malaria
		9.3 Other Metallic Nanoparticles in Malaria
	10 Toxicology of Metallic NPs
	11 Future Prospective
	12 Conclusion
	References
Index