Mader's Reptile and Amphibian Medicine and Surgery

Front Cover
Endsheet 2
Mader\'s Reptile and Amphibian Medicine and Surgery
Copyright Page
Dedication
Contributors
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
Table Of Contents
1 Practice Management and Development
	1 Developing a Successful Herpetological Veterinary Service
		Medicine Practiced
			Managing/Developing the Business
				(A) Attracting Clients.
					1. Marketing/advertising your herpetological service.
					2. Establishing that your practice has herpetological expertise.
				(B) Proper Organization: Client and Patient Processing
					“You have only one chance to make a first impression.”
				(C) Knowledgeable Support Staff
					“You are only as good as those helping you.”
				(D) Appropriate Infrastructure
					“Better facilities make for smoother operations.”
				(E) Necessary Equipment
					“No good carpenter blames his tools.”
		Approach and Attitude
			“A Clear Statement of Our Ignorance Does More to Advance Science Than Does an Assumption of Knowledge.”
		References
		References
	2 Reference Resources for the Herpetological Clinician
		Associations and Societies
		Books
			Identification and Husbandry
			Anatomy and Physiology
			Pathology
			Clinical Medicine
		Journals
		Online Resources
		Conferences
		References
		References
	3 Understanding the Human-Herp Relationship
		The Human-Animal Bond
		The Pet Reptile or Amphibian
		The Commercial Animal
		Large Collections
		End-of-Life Considerations
		Compassionate Euthanasia Guidelines
		Common Concerns for the Clinician and the Client Regarding Animal Loss
		Conclusion
		References
		References
	4 Specialization
		Advice to Candidates Seeking Specialist Registration
		Requirements for Continuing Education in the Chosen Specialty
		Specialty Boards
			The American College of Zoological Medicine
			The American Board of Veterinary Practitioners
			The European College of Zoological Medicine
			Veterinary Specialization in Australia and New Zealand
		Specialty Colleges and Boards Web Pages
		References
		References
	5 The Importance of Herpetological Publication by Clinicians and Academics
		What Is “Herpetological Literature”?
			Lay Literature
			Conference Proceedings
			Scientific Abstracts
			Book Chapters
			Peer-Reviewed Literature
		Negative Results Don’t Exist…Only Hypotheses That Need to Be Tested
		Peer-Reviewed Herpetological Medicine Publications
		Being an Active Participant in Peer Review
		Conclusion
		References
		References
	6 Statistics for the Clinician Scientist
		Hypotheses
		Data
		Distribution
		Sample Size
		The P-Value
		Parametric VERSUS Nonparametric Statistical Tests
		Statistical Software
		Conclusion
		References
		References
2 Biology (Taxonomy, Anatomy, Physiology, and Behavior)
	7 Chelonian Taxonomy, Anatomy, and Physiology
		Taxonomy
		Anatomy and Physiology
			Musculoskeletal System
			Integumentary System
			Respiratory System
			Digestive System
			Genitourinary Systems
			Sexual Dimorphism
			Cardiovascular System
			Nervous System
			Nonreproductive Endocrine System
			Special Senses and Salt Glands
		References
		References
	8 Snake Taxonomy, Anatomy, and Physiology
		Taxonomy
			Infraorder Scolecophidia: The Blind Snakes
			Infraorder Alethinophidia
		Anatomy and Physiology
			Integument
			Cardiovascular System
			Respiratory System
			Digestive System
			Reproductive and Urinary Systems
			Musculoskeletal System
			Nervous System and Special Senses
			Endocrine System
		Behavior
		References
		References
	9 Lizard Taxonomy, Anatomy, and Physiology
		Taxonomy
		Anatomy and Physiology
			Integument
			Cardiovascular System
			Respiratory System
			Digestive System
			Reproductive System
			Urinary System
			Musculoskeletal System
			Nervous System
			Special Senses
				Hearing.
				Vision.
			Endocrine System
		Behavior
		Longevity
		References
		References
	10 Crocodilian Taxonomy, Anatomy, and Physiology
		Taxonomy
		Anatomy and Physiology
			Integument
			Cardiovascular System
			Respiratory System
			Digestive System
			Reproductive System
			Urinary System
			Musculoskeletal System
			Nervous System
			Species Senses
				Vision.
				Hearing.
		Behavior
		References
		References
	11 Tuatara Taxonomy, Anatomy, and Physiology
		Taxonomy
		Anatomy and Physiology
			Integument
			Cardiovascular System
			Respiratory System
			Digestive System: Dentition
			Liver
			Pancreas and Spleen
			Gastrointestinal System
			Reproductive System
			Urinary System
			Musculoskeletal System
			Nervous System and Special Senses
			Endocrine System
			Thermal Physiology and Metabolic Rate
		Acknowledgments
		References
		References
	12 Amphibian Taxonomy, Anatomy, and Physiology
		Taxonomy
		Anatomy and Physiology
			Integument
			Cardiovascular System
			Respiratory System
			Digestive System
			Reproductive System
			Urinary System
			Musculoskeletal System
			Nervous System
			Species Senses
			Endocrine System
		Behavior
		References
		References
	13 Natural Behavior
		Ectothermy
		Water Conservation and Osmotic Balance
		Sensory Adaptations
		Foraging and Predation
		Sleep and Other Endogenous Rhythms
		Color Change
		Defense
			Predator Avoidance and Immobility
			Defensive Postures and Displays
			Tail Displays and Tail Autotomy
			Counter-Attack
		Social & Reproductive Adaptations
			Courtship
			Mating
			Gestation
			Parental Care
		Nonreproductive Social Behavior
		Behaviors Particular to Captivity
		Acknowledgments
		References
		References
	14 Behavioral Training and Enrichment of Reptiles
		Enrichment
		Training
		Practical Examples of Training and Enrichment
			Nile Monitor (Varanus niloticus)
			Komodo Dragon (Varanus komodoensis)
			Crocodilians
			Venomous Snakes
		Conclusion
		References
		References
	15 Stress and Welfare
		Physiology of the Stress Response
		Effects of Stress on the Various Body Systems
		When Does the Stress Response Become Nonadaptive?
		The Stress of Captivity
		How Is Stress Important to Reptile Medicine?
		Assessing Welfare Needs
		Recognizing Stress and Its Impacts on Welfare
		Conclusion
		Acknowledgments
		References
		References
3 Husbandry and Management
	16 General Husbandry and Management
		Biology
		Basic Husbandry Requirements
			Temporary Housing or Hospitalization
			Temperature
			Photoperiod and Light Quality (Lighting)
			Humidity and Ventilation
			Substrate
			Measuring and Monitoring
			Cage Size and Construction
			Quarantine
			Cleaning and Disinfection
			Examinations
			Parasite Control
			Control of Disease Transmission in Closed Collections
			Multi-Individual and Multispecies Enclosures
			Environmental Enhancement and Outdoor Enclosures
			Bioactive Substrates
			Water
			Feeding
			Stress
		Conclusion
		Acknowledgments
		References
		References
	17 Environmental Lighting
		Natural Sunlight
			Infrared
			Visible Light and UVA
			UVB
			Utilizing Natural Sunlight
		Electromagnetic Radiation
			Infrared
				Ceramic Heaters, Panel Heaters, and Heat Mats.
				Incandescent Lamps.
			Visible Light
				“Daylight” Fluorescent Tubes and Compact Lamps.
				Metal Halides.
				LED Lighting.
				Colored Lamps.
			Ultraviolet
				Estimating the UV Requirement: the Ferguson Zone Concept.
			Excessive UV Exposure/Nonterrestrial UVB and UVC
		References
		References
	18 Disinfection
		Techniques and Products
		References
		References
	19 Quarantine
		Disease Risk Assessment
		Quarantine Duration
		Quarantine Evaluation
		References
		References
	20 Snakes
		Restraint
		Specific Housing Requirements
		Thermoregulation
		Feeding and Nutrition
		Behavior
		Brumation
		Longevity
		References
		References
	21 Lizards
		Restraint
		Identification
		Specific Housing Requirements
			Cage Size and Orientation
			Construction Materials
			Substrates
			Cage Furniture
		Outdooor Enclosures
			Thermoregulation
			Lighting
		Water Provision, Humidity, and Osmoregulation
		Communal Housing and Handling
		Feeding and Nutrition
			Herbivores
			Insectivores
			Carnivores
			Nectivore
		Disinfection
		Quarantine
		References
		References
	22 Venomous Species
		Development of Emergency Protocols for the Management of Venomous Animal Bites
		Classification of Venomous Reptiles
		Venoms
			Hemotoxic Effects
			Neurotoxic Effects
			Myotoxic Effects
		LD50
		Medical Management of Snakebite
			Snake Venom Detection Kit (SVDK)
			Antivenom
		Handling and Treating Venomous Snakes in the Veterinary Hospital
			Venomoid Snakes
		Venomous Animal Bite Plan (United States)
		Venomous Animal Escape Plan
		First-Aid Procedures
		First-Aid Procedures for a Venomous Reptile Bite (United States)
		Elapid Snakebite (Australia)
		Pressure/Immobilization
		Medical Treatment
		Acknowledgments
		References
		References
	23 Tortoises, Freshwater Turtles, and Terrapins
		Handling
		Lighting
		Temperature
		Hibernation
		Predators and Other Hazards
		Annual Examinations
		Identification
		Acclimatization
		Tortoise and Box Turtle Care
			Outdoor Housing
			Indoor Housing
			Substrates
			Water
			Feeding
			Reproduction
			Neonatal Care
		Aquatic Turtles
			Housing
			Temperature
			Water Quality
			Haul Out and/or Nesting Area
			Feeding
			Neonatal Care
			Species Interactions
		Acknowledgments
		References
		References
	24 Sea Turtles
		Sea Turtle Species and Identification
		Natural History
		Permit Conditions for Sea Turtle Captive Care and Rehabilitation
		Handling and Transportation
		Housing
		Quarantine and Biosecurity
		Nutrition
		Conclusion
		References
		References
	25 Crocodilians
		Restraint
		Identification
		Specific Housing Requirements
		Feeding and Nutrition
		References
		References
	26 Tuatara
		Restraint
		Identification
		Specific Housing Requirements
		Feeding and Nutrition
		Acknowledgments
		References
		References
	27 Nutrition
		Water
		Complete Manufactured Diets
			Reading a Product Label
			Metabolizable Energy
			Protein
		Multivitamins and Calcium Supplements
			Multivitamins
			Calcium Supplements
		Nutritional Biology
			Insectivores
				Gut-Loading Insects.
				Dusting Insects.
				Insect Variety.
			Carnivores
				Snakes.
				Crocodilians.
			Herbivores
				Misconceptions.
			Omnivores
				Box Turtles.
				Bearded Dragons.
				Sea Turtles.
				Freshwater Turtles.
		Conclusion
		References
		References
	28 Amphibians
		Restraint
		Identification
		Specific Housing Requirements
			Temperature
			Lighting
			Outdoor Enclosures
		Quarantine and Disinfection Procedures
		Environmental Toxins
		Transportation of Amphibians
		Suitability of Species
		Stocking Density
		Feeding and Nutrition
		References
		References
4 Infectious Diseases and Laboratory Sciences
	29 Bacteriology
		Reptiles as Microbial Ecosystems
		Bacterial Diagnostics
		An Overview of Bacterial Taxa
		Firmicutes
			Streptococcus.
			Enterococcus.
			Staphylococcus.
			Listeria.
			Clostridium.
			Erysipelothrix.
		Proteobacteria
			α-Proteobacteria
				Bartonella.
				Rickettsia.
				Ehrlichia.
				Anaplasma.
			β-Proteobacteria
				Burkholderia.
				Neisseria.
				Chromobacterium.
			γ-Proteobacteria
				Pseudomonadales: Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter baumanii.
				Aeromonadales: Aeromonas hydrophila.
				Xanthomonadales: Stenotrophomonas maltophila.
				Enterobacteriales.
					Salmonella.
					Morganella.
			ε-Proteobacteria
				Campylobacter.
				Helicobacter.
		Actinobacteria
			Actinomyces, Arcanobacterium, and Trueperella.
			Rhodococcus.
			Corynebacterium.
			Nocardia.
			Mycobacterium.
			Austwickia.
			Devriesea.
		Bacteroidetes
			Elizabethkingia.
		Chlamydiae
			Chlamydia, Neochlamydia, Parachlamydia, and Simkania.
		Tenericutes
			Mycoplasma, Ureaplasma, and Acholeplasma.
		Spirochaetes
			Borrelia.
			Leptospira.
		Fusobacteria
			Fusobacterium necrophorum.
		Cyanobacteria
		References
		References
	30 Virology
		Adenoviridae
			Adenoviruses in Squamates
			Adenoviruses in Chelonians
			Adenoviruses in Crocodilians
			Identification of Adenovirus Infections
				Virus Detection.
				Serology.
		Herpesviridae
			Herpesviruses in Squamates
			Herpesviruses in Crocodilians
			Herpesviruses in Chelonians
			Identification of Herpesvirus Infections
				Virus Detection.
				Serology.
		Iridoviridae
		Ranaviruses
			Chelonians
				Squamates
				Transmission.
			Identification of Ranavirus Infections
				Virus Detection.
				Serology.
		Invertebrate Iridoviruses (IIV)
			Identification of IIV Infections
		Erythrocytic Viruses
			Identification of Erythrocytic Viruses
		Papillomaviridae
			Papillomaviruses in Squamates
			Papillomaviruses in Chelonians
			Identification of Papillomavirus Infections
		Poxviridae
			Identification of Poxvirus Infections
		Circoviridae and Tornovirus
		Parvoviridae
		Hepadnaviridae
		Retroviridae
		Reoviridae
			Identification of Reovirus Infections
				Virus Detection.
				Serology.
		Bornaviridae
		Paramyxoviridae: Ferlavirus
			Ferlaviruses in Squamates
			Ferlaviruses in Chelonians
			Identification of Ferlavirus Infections
				Virus Detection.
				Serology.
		Sunviridae: Sunshinevirus
		Rhabdoviridae
		Arenaviridae
		Inclusion Body Disease (IBD)
			Identification of IBD and Reptarenaviruses
		Bunyaviridae
		Nidovirales: Coronaviridae
		Picornaviridae
			Identification of Picornavirus Infections in Tortoises
				Virus Detection.
				Serology.
		Caliciviridae
		Flaviviridae
		West Nile Virus (WNV)
			Identification of WNV Infections
		Togaviridae
		References
		References
	31 Mycology
		Reptile-Fungal Ecology
		Issues in Mycology
		Fungal Diagnostics
		Pharmacologic Antifungal Therapy
		An Overview of Fungal Taxa
			Microsporidia
				Diagnosis.
				Treatment.
			Chytridiomycota
				Diagnosis.
				Treatment.
			Zoopagomycota
				Basidiobolus ranarum.
				Schizangiella serpentis.
			Mucormycota
				Mucor.
			Dikarya
				Basidiomycota.
					Cryptococcus/Filobasidiella.
			Ascomycota
				Pezizomycotina—Eurotiomycetes: Onygenales.
					Ophidiomyces.
					Coccidioides.
					Paranannizziopsis.
				Pezizomycotina—Eurotiomycetes: Chaetothyriales.
					Exophiala and Veronaea.
				Pezizomycotina—Sordariomycetes: Hypocreales.
					Purpureocillium.
					Metarhizium.
				Pezizomycotina—Eurotiomycetes: Eurotiales
					Aspergillus.
				Saccharomycotina—Saccharomycetes: Saccharomycetales
					Candida.
		References
		References
	32 Parasitology (Including Hemoparasites)
		Reptile-Parasite Ecology
		Diagnostic Confirmation
		Single-Celled Parasites
			Alveolata
				Ciliophora (Balantidium, Nyctotherus).
				Apicomplexa.
				Haemosporidia (Plasmodium, Haemoproteus, Haemocystidium).
				Coccidia.
				Adeleorina (Hepatozoon, Hemolivia, Haemogregarina, Karyolysus).
				Eimeriorina (Cryptosporidium, Isospora, Sarcocystis, Eimeria, Caryospora, Schellackia, Choleoeimeria, Intranuclear Coccidium of Tortoises).
					Cryptosporidiidae.
					Eimeriidae.
					Sarcocystidae.
			Excavata
				Fornicata (Giardia, Hexamita).
				Parabasalea (Monocercomonas).
				Euglenozoa (Trypanosoma, Leishmania).
			Amoebozoa (Entamoeba)
				Entamoeba Invadens.
		Metazoan Parasites
			Platyhelminthes
				Trematoda (Flukes).
				Cestoda (Tapeworms).
					Monogenea.
			Lophotrochozoa
				Annelida (Leeches).
				Acanthocephala (Thorny-Headed Worms).
			Ecdysozoa
				Nematoda.
					Strongyloidoidea.
					Ascaridida.
					Oxyurida.
					Trichinellida.
				Arthropoda.
					Pentastomida.
					Arachnida.
					Insecta.
		References
		References
	33 Hematology
		Sample Collection and Preservation
			Restraint and Site Preparation
			Venipuncture Equipment
			Anticoagulant
			Venipuncture Sites
			Sample Storage and Expected Analyte Changes
		The Hematology Report
			Complete Blood Count (CBC)
			Leukogram (White Blood Cell Count and Differential)
			Red Blood Cells
			Packed Cell Volume
		Leukocyte Morphology, Function, and Interpretation
			Lymphocyte
			Monocyte
			Azurophil
			Heterophil
			Eosinophils
			Basophils
			Thrombocytes
			Hemoparasites and Cellular Inclusions
		References
		References
	34 Clinical Chemistry
		Venipuncture
		Gross Plasma Evaluation
			Lipemia
			Lymphatic and Cerebrospinal Fluid Dilution
			Hemolysis
		Anticoagulants, Preservation, and Venipuncture Sites
			Anticoagulants
			Sample Preservation
			Venipuncture Sites
		Blood Chemistry
			Enzyme Activities
			Biliverdin and Bilirubin
			Bile Acids
			Proteins and Acute Phase Reactants
			Acute Phase Proteins
			Reptile Glucose
				Hypoglycemia.
				Hyperglycemia.
			Amphibian Glucose
			Lipids and Lipoproteins
			Calcium, Phosphorus, and Magnesium
			Osmolality, Sodium, Potassium, Chloride, and Bicarbonate
			Blood Gases and Acid-Base Balance
			Uric Acid, Urea, and Ammonia
		References
		References
	35 Hematology and Biochemistry Tables
		References
		References
	36 Molecular Infectious Disease Diagnostics
		Serology or Culture Compared With Molecular Techniques
		Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
		Probe Hybridization Quantitative PCR
		Consensus PCR Techniques
		Rolling Circle Amplification
		High Throughput Sequencing
		Sample Collection for Nucleic Acid–Based Diagnostics
		How to Choose a Laboratory
		References
		References
	37 Immunopathology
		Cells and Tissues of the Immune System
		Innate Immunity
		Adaptive Immunity
		Responses and Disorders
			Sex Hormone–Induced Immunopathology
			Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals
			Response to Infectious Agents
			Immune Complex-Associated Glomerulonephritis
			Splendore-Hoeppli Reaction
			Hypersensitivity
			Amyloidosis
			Neoplasia of the Immune System
			Vaccination
			Immunohistochemistry
		References
		References
	38 Cytology
		Sample Acquisition
			Aspirates
			Impression Smears
			Scrapes
			Swabs
		Sample Handling
		Sample Submission
		References
		References
	39 Biopsy
		Gross Photography
		References
		References
	40 Necropsy
		Necropsy Procedures
			1. Obtain Medical History
			2. External Examination
				Integument and Musculoskeletal System.
			3. Open the Body Cavity
			4. Remove and Set Aside the Organs
			5. Examine and Sample the Organs
				Hematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues (Spleen, Thymus, Bone Marrow, Peripheral Blood).
				Endocrine Organs (Adrenal, Pancreas, Thyroid, Parathyroid, Ultimobranchial, Pituitary, Pineal Glands).
				Cardiovascular System (Heart, Great Vessels).
				Respiratory System (Trachea, Bronchi, Lung, Pseudodiaphragm).
				Urogenital System (Kidney, Urinary Bladder, Ovary, Uterus, Testes, Phallus/Hemipenes).
				Liver.
				Nervous System (Brain, Spinal Cord).
				Gastrointestinal Tract.
			6. Write the Report
		After the Necropsy
		Acknowledgments
		References
		References
	41 Diagnostic Laboratory Listing
		North America (Accredited Laboratories)
			Alabama
			Arizona
			California
				Main Laboratory
				Branch Laboratories
			Colorado
				Main Laboratory
				Branch Laboratories
			Connecticut
			Florida
			Georgia
			Illinois
			Indiana
				Main Laboratory
				Branch Laboratory
			Iowa
			Kentucky
			Louisiana
			Michigan
			Minnesota
			Mississippi
				Main Laboratory
				Branch Laboratories
			Missouri
			Montana
			Nebraska
			New York
				Main Laboratory
				Branch Laboratories
			North Carolina
				Main Laboratory
				Branch Laboratories
			North Dakota
			Ohio
			Oklahoma
			Oregon
			Pennsylvania
			South Dakota
			Tennessee
			Texas
				Main Laboratory
				Branch Laboratories
			Utah
				Main Laboratory
				Virginia
				Branch Laboratory
			Washington
				Main Laboratory
				Branch Laboratory
			Wisconsin
				Main Laboratory
				Branch Laboratory
			Wyoming
			Canada
		North America (Labs With Provisional Accreditation)
			Kansas
		North America (Nonaccredited Laboratories)
			California
			Florida
			Georgia
			Illinois
			Ohio
			Utah
			Washington
		Europe
			Germany
			Spain
			United Kingdom
			Australia
		Asia
			Hong Kong
			Singapore
5 Techniques and Procedures
	42 Medical History and Physical Examination
		Special Considerations
			Reception and Preparation
			Transportation
			Large Dangerous or Venomous Reptiles
			Chemical Restraint
			Operant Conditioning and Training
			Zoonoses
			Weight, Length, and Body Condition Score
			Cloacal Temperature
			Transillumination
			Auscultation
		Snakes
		Lizards
		Chelonians
		Crocodilians
		References
		References
	43 Diagnostic Techniques and Sample Collection
		Diagnostic Sample Collection
			Blood and Hemopoietic System
				Venipuncture and Blood Collection.
					Snakes.
					Lizards.
					Crocodilians.
				Bone Marrow.
				Spleen.
				Cardiovascular Function.
			Integument
				Ectoparasites.
				Skin Scrapes and Impression Smears.
				Scale and Skin Biopsies.
			Respiratory System
				Nares, Larynx and Cranial Trachea.
				Caudal Trachea and Lung Lavage.
				Lung Biopsy.
				Endoscopic Biopsy.
			Gastrointestinal System
				Oral Biopsy.
				Cloacocolonic Lavage.
				Gastric Lavage.
				Gastroscopy and Biopsy.
				Liver Biopsy.
				Pancreatic Biopsy.
			Musculoskeletal System
				Bone and Shell Biopsy.
				Muscle Biopsy.
			Urinary System
				Urine.
					Voided urine.
				Renal Biopsy.
					Coeliotomy biopsy.
					Cranial tail cut-down biopsy.
				Bladder Biopsy.
					Endoscopic biopsy.
				Cloacocolonic Biopsy.
			Reproductive System
				Phallus and Hemipenes.
				Cloacal (Musk) Glands.
				Oviducts and Vas Deferens.
				Gonads.
			Nervous System and Special Senses
				Cerebrospinal Fluid.
				Eyes.
				Ears.
				Peripheral Nerve Evaluation and Biopsy.
		References
		References
	44 Catheter Placement
		Peripheral Venous Catheterization
			Catheter Types
			Catheter Insertion Sites (Table 44.1)
		Intraosseous Catheterization
			Catheter Types
			Catheter Insertion Sites
		Intracardiac Catheterization
		Arterial Catheterization
		Central Venous Catheterization
			Catheter Types
			Seldinger Technique
			Verification of Placement
			Rewiring of Catheters
			Catheter Maintenance
		Vascular Access Ports
		Catheter Maintenance
		Conclusion
		References
		References
	45 Esophagostomy Tube Placement
		Procedure
		Maintenance and Use
		Removal
		Conclusion
		References
		References
	46 Hospitalization
		Indications for Hospitalization
		Enclosures and Security
			Temperature
			Humidity
			Enclosure Substrate
			Nutrition
			Staff
			Monitoring
		References
		References
	47 Euthanasia
		Euthanasia Techniques
		Euthanasia of Field-Collected Animals
		Slaughter
		Amphibians
		References
		References
6 Anesthesia
	48 Sedation
		Maintaining Body Temperature
		Induction and Recovery
		Routes of Administration
		Benzodiazepines
		α2-Adrenergic Agonists
		Phenothiazines (Acepromazine)
		Opioids
		Sedation Using Low-Dose Anesthetic Agents
			Dissociatives (Ketamine, Tiletamine)
			Propofol
			Alfaxalone
		Non-Pharmaceutical Methods
			Vasovagal Response
			Cold Narcosis
		Monitoring Patients Under Sedation
		References
		References
	49 General Anesthesia
		Anatomy and Physiology
			Thermoregulation and Environmental Temperature
			Cardiopulmonary Systems
				Hepatic First-Pass Effect.
				Respiratory Anatomy and Physiology.
		Preanesthetic Evaluation
			Supportive Measures
		Injectable Anesthetic Agents
			Routes of Parenteral Drug Administration
			Drugs
		General Anesthesia
			Induction
			Maintenance
		Monitoring Techniques
			Cardiovascular Monitoring
			Respiratory Performance
		Anesthetic Emergencies
		Recovery
		References
		References
	50 Analgesia
		Reptile Nociception or Pain?
			Neuroanatomic and Neurophysiological Evidence
				Nociceptive Pathways.
					Nociceptors.
				Opioid Receptors and Endogenous Opioids.
		Measurement and Quantification of Pain and Analgesia in Reptiles
		Analgesic Drugs
			Methods of Administration
			Opioids and Opioidlike Analgesics
			Parenteral Anesthetics
			Local Anesthetics as Analgesics
			Nonsteroidal Antiinflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs)
			Acupuncture
			Multimodal Analgesic Approaches
		Conclusion
		Ackowledgments
		References
		References
	51 Regional Anesthesia and Analgesia
		Mechanism of Action
		Adverse Effects
		Local Anesthetics
			Lidocaine
			Bupivacaine
		Local Anesthetic Techniques
			Tissue Infiltration (Incisional Anesthesia)
			Nerve Blocks
			Spinal Anesthesia
		References
		References
	52 Amphibian Anesthesia
		Anatomy and Physiology
		Anesthetic Agents and Modes of Administration
			Tricaine Methanesulfonate
			Eugenol
			Inhalant Agents
			Injectable Agents
			Miscellaneous Drugs
		Monitoring
			Cardiopulmonary Parameters
			Reflexes
		Anesthetic Procedure
			Preparation
			Induction
			Maintenance
			Recovery
		Analgesia
		Emergencies
		References
		References
7 Diagnostic Imaging
	53 Radiography—General Principles
		Radiographic Equipment
		Image Interpretation
		References
		References
	54 Radiography—Lizards
		Restraint and Positioning
		Cardiovascular System
		Respiratory System
		Digestive System
		Reproductive System
		Urinary System
		Musculoskeletal System
		Miscellaneous
		References
		References
	55 Radiography—Snakes
		Restraint and Positioning
		Cardiovascular System
		Respiratory System
		Gastrointestinal System
		Contrast Radiography
		Liver
		Reproductive System
		Urinary System
		Musculoskeletal System
		Miscellaneous
		References
		References
	56 Radiography—Chelonians
		Restraint and Positioning
		Cardiovascular System
		Respiratory System
		Gastrointestinal System
		Reproductive System
		Urinary System
		Musculoskeletal System
		References
		References
	57 Radiography—Crocodilians
		Restraint, Preparation, and Positioning
		Whole Body
		Cranial Coelom
		Caudal Coelom
		Skull
		Spine/Tail
		Limbs
		Pelvis
	58 Ultrasonography
		Equipment
		Special Considerations
		Indications
		Patient Preparation
		Scanning Pattern
		Cardiovascular System
		The Liver
		The Fat Body
		Gastrointestinal Tract
		The Spleen
		The Gonads
		Urinary Bladder
		Kidneys
		The Eye
		Abscesses
		References
		References
	59 Computed Tomography
		Acknowledgments
		References
		References
	60 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
		Principles of Magnetic Resonance Imaging
		MRI Applications in Reptiles
		Acknowledgments
		References
		References
	61 Scintigraphy
		Skeletal Scintigraphy
		Scintigraphic Techniques
		Case 1
		Case 2
		Renal Scintigraphy
		References
		References
8 Endoscopy
	62 Diagnostic and Surgical Endoscopy Equipment
		Diagnostic Endoscopy Equipment
			Telescopes and Sheaths
			Flexible Endoscopes
			Light Sources
			Cameras
			Photodocumentation
			Mobile Units
			CO2 Insufflation and Saline Infusion
			Flexible Instrumentation
		Endosurgical Equipment
			Cannulae and Trocars
			Instruments and Handles
			Surgical Devices and Hemostasis
			Endoscopy Tables and Support Arms
		Equipment Cleaning, Sterilization, and Storage
		Acknowledgments
		References
		References
	63 Endoscopy Practice Management (Fee Structures and Marketing)
		Equipment Charges, Ancillary Fees, and Procedural Fees
		Marketing
		Conclusion
		References
		References
	64 Diagnostic Endoscopy
		Preoperative Evaluations and Anesthesia
			Patient Selection, Evaluation, and Contraindications
			Patient Preparation and Anesthesia
		Operating Room Preparation, Ergonomics and Equipment Handling
		Diagnostic Endoscopy Procedures
			Tracheoscopy and Pulmonoscopy
			Stomatoscopy and Gastroscopy
			Cloacoscopy
			Coelioscopy
				Lizards.
				Snakes.
				Chelonians.
			Natural Orifice Transluminal Endoscopic Surgery (NOTES)
			Pathology and Endoscopic Biopsy
		Postoperative Care, Complications, and Outcomes
		Acknowledgments
		References
		References
	65 Endoscope-Assisted and Endoscopic Surgery
		Endosurgical Principles and Techniques
		Endoscope-Assisted Procedures
		Endosurgery
			Chelonians
				Oophorectomy of Immature Females
				Orchiectomy
			Lizards
				Orchiectomy
		Endoscopy Training
		Acknowledgments
		References
		References
9 Medicine
	66 Urology
		Gross Anatomy
			Order Squamata: Suborder Sauria
			Suborder Serpentes
			Order Rhynchocephalia
			Order Testudines
			Order Crocodilia
		Microscopic Anatomy
		Physiology
		Clinical Investigation
			History and Physical Examination
			Clinical Biochemistry
			Hematology
			Urinalysis
				Urine Collection.
				Urine Evaluation.
					Urine pH.
					Occult blood.
			Radiography
			Ultrasonography
			Scintigraphy
			Computed Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
			Endoscopy
			Needle Aspiration and Cytology
			Renal Biopsy
				Ultrasound-Guided Biopsy.
				Endoscopic Biopsy.
				Surgical Biopsy.
			Functional Renal Evaluation
		General Approach to Treatment
		Specific Urologic Diseases
			Gout
				Clinical Significance.
				Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation.
				Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Prognosis and Prevention.
				Specific Treatment.
			Glomerulosclerosis, Nephrosclerosis, Glomerulonephrosis, and Tubulonephrosis
				Clinical Significance.
				Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Prognosis, Prevention, and Treatment.
			Interstitial Nephritis, Glomerulonephritis, Tubulonephritis, and Pyelonephritis
				Clinical Significance.
				Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Prognosis and Prevention.
				Treatment.
			Toxic Nephropathy
			Urolithiasis
				Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Preferred Medical or Surgical Treatment(s).
				Prognosis and Prevention.
			Ectopic Eggs in the Urinary Bladder
			Neoplasia
			Miscellaneous Diseases
		Conclusion
		Acknowledgments
		References
		References
	67 Hepatology
		Anatomy
		Physiology
		Clinical Investigation
			History and Physical Examination
			Clinical Enzymology
			Plasma Proteins
			Ammonia
			Uric Acid and Blood Urea Nitrogen
			Bilirubin and Biliverdin
			Bile Acids
			Glucose
			Cholesterol, Triglycerides, and Lipids
			Urinalysis
			Hematology
			Radiography
			Computed Tomography (CT)
			Ultrasonography
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
			Endoscopy
			Fine Needle Aspirate Cytology
			Biopsy
		General Approach to Treatment
		Specific Hepatic Diseases
			Hepatic Lipidosis
				Clinical Significance.
				Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation.
				Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Specific Treatment(s).
				Prognosis.
				Prevention.
			Hepatitis
				Clinical Significance.
				Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation.
				Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Specific Treatment(s).
				Prognosis.
				Prevention.
			Toxic Hepatopathy
				Clinical Significance.
				Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation.
				Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Specific Treatment(s).
				Prognosis.
				Prevention.
			Cholangitis, Cholecystitis, and Cholecystolithiasis
				Clinical Significance.
				Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation.
				Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Specific Treatment(s).
				Prognosis.
				Prevention.
			Hepatic Neoplasia
				Clinical Significance.
				Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation.
				Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Specific Treatment(s).
				Prognosis.
				Prevention.
		References
		References
	68 Cardiology
		Cardiac Anatomy and Physiology
			Cardiac Size, Shape, and Position
			Pericardium
			Heart Anatomy
				Noncrocodilians.
				Crocodilians.
			Cardiac Physiology
				Pacemaker and Heart Rate.
				Blood Flow During Normal Breathing
					Noncrocodilians.
					Crocodilians.
				Cardiac Shunting.
		Diagnostic Tools in Reptile Cardiology
			Physical Examination
			Auscultation
			Blood Pressure Measurement and Pulse Oximetry
			Clinical Pathology
			Electrocardiography
			Diagnostic Imaging
				Radiography.
				Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging.
			Echocardiography
				Endoscopy.
		Cardiac Diseases
			Noninfectious Cardiac Disease
				Congenital Defects.
				Cardiomyopathies.
				Noninfectious Valvulopathies (Valvular Endocardiosis).
				Pericardial Diseases.
				Neoplasia.
			Infectious Cardiac Disease
				Bacterial (Endocarditis, Myocarditis, and Pericarditis).
				Viral (Myocarditis, Degeneration, Necrosis).
				Parasitic.
		Treatment/Management of Cardiac Disease
			Inotropes
			Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE) Inhibitors
			Diuretics
		References
		References
	69 Dermatology—Skin
		Anatomy
		Physiology
		Clinical Diseases
			Infectious Dermatoses
				Viral Diseases.
				Bacterial Diseases
					Clinical significance.
					Diagnostic confirmation.
					Prognosis.
				Mycotic Diseases
					Clinical significance.
					Medical therapy.
				Abscesses
					Known etiological cause(s) and clinical presentation.
					Diagnostic confirmation.
				Parasitic Diseases
					Clinical significance.
			Noninfectious Dermatoses
				Dysecdysis
					Definition.
					Clinical significance.
				Burns
					Clinical significance.
					Prognosis.
				Bites From Prey
					Clinical significance.
				Rostral Abrasions
					Clinical significance.
				Nutritional Dermatoses
					Clinical significance.
				Cutaneous Neoplastic Disorders
					Known etiological cause(s).
					Diagnostic confirmation.
		Diagnostic Testing
		References
		References
	70 Dermatology—Shell
		Anatomy
			Embryonic Development of the Shell
			Rib Growth Mechanisms
			Formation of the Solid Carapace
			Formation of the Plastron
			Development of the Scutes
			Dermal Bones
			Scutes
			Kinesis—Flexible Skeletal Hinges
			Fontanels
			Plastral Peculiarities
		Physiology
			Scute Growth
			Scutes and Age Determination
			Sexual Dimorphism
			Role of the Shell in Anoxia Tolerance in Freshwater Turtles
		Clinical Diseases
			Scute Anomalies
				Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation, Treatment, and Prevention.
			Ankylosis—Distorted Growth
				Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation and Treatment.
			Pyramiding
				Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation, Treatment, Prognosis, and Prevention.
			Softening of the Shell in Juvenile Herbivorous Tortoises
				Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Treatment, Prognosis, and Prevention.
			Secondary Hyperparathyroidism (Metabolic Bone Disease)
				Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Treatment, Prognosis, and Prevention.
			Bacterial Shell Dermatitis/Osteomyelitis (Including Septicemic Cutaneous Ulcerative Disease)
				Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Treatment.
				Prognosis and Prevention.
			Mycotic Shell Dermatitis/Osteomyelitis (Including White Spot Disease in Softshelled Turtles)
				Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Treatment, Prognosis, and Prevention.
			Dyskeratosis in Tortoises
				Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Treatment, Prognosis, and Prevention.
			Burns
				Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Treatment, Prognosis, and Prevention.
			Frostbite
				Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Treatment, Prognosis, and Prevention.
			Neoplasia of the Shell
				Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Treatment, Prognosis, and Prevention.
		References
		References
	71 Ophthalmology
		Anatomy and Physiology
			Parietal Eye
			Eyelids
			Spectacles
			Lacrimal System
			Globe
			Cornea
			Anterior Chamber and Uveal Tract
			Lens and Accommodation
			Retina and Visual Tracts
		Ophthalmic Examination
			Diagnostic Tests Specific to Ophthalmology
			Testing Patency of the Nasolacrimal System
		Clinical Diseases
			Eyelid Trauma
			Blepharoedema and Blepharitis
			Eyelid Neoplasia
			Abrasions and Ulcers of the Spectacle
			Loss of Spectacle
			Infection of the Spectacle: Bacterial and Fungal
			Subspectacular Abscess
			Parasites Affecting the Spectacle
			Retained Spectacle
			Pseudobuphthalmos
			Keratoconjunctivitis Sicca (Dry Eye)
			Congenital Abnormalities of the Globe
			Exophthalmos
			Infection of the Globe
			Conjunctivitis
			Corneal Disease
			Keratitis
			Uveitis
			Cataracts
			Retinal Disease
			Ocular Therapeutics
		References
		References
	72 Otorhinolaryngology
		Anatomy and Physiology
			Ear
			Nasal Cavity
			Pharynx/Larynx
		General Approach to Case Management and Treatment
		Specific Diseases
			Otitis
				Tympanic Protrusions.
				Aural Abscess
					Clinical significance.
					Clinical presentation and diagnostic confirmation.
			Rhinitis
				Mycoplasmosis
					Clinical significance.
					Pathology.
					Diagnostic testing and confirmation.
					Specific therapy.
					Prognosis.
				Infectious Rhinitis (Excluding Mycoplasmosis).
				Noninfectious Rhinitis.
			Laryngitis and Pharyngitis
			Pharyngeal and Submandibular Edema and Cellulitis
			Cervical Aneurysm
			Laryngeal Paralysis
			Neoplasia
		References
		References
	73 Gastroenterology—Oral Cavity, Esophagus, and Stomach
		Anatomy and Physiology
			Oral Cavity
			Esophagus
			Stomach
		Clinical Investigation
			History and Physical Examination
			Clinical Pathology
			Diagnostic Imaging
			Endoscopy
		Clinical Diseases
			Stomatitis, Esophagitis, and Gastritis
			Viral Diseases
			Bacterial Diseases
			Mycotic Diseases
			Parasitic Diseases
				Helminthiasis.
				Cryptosporidiosis.
		Malnutrition
		Maldigestion Due to Environmental and Dietary Issues
		Foreign Bodies
		Neoplasia
		References
		References
	74 Gastroenterology—Small Intestine, Exocrine Pancreas, and Large Intestine
		Anatomy and Physiology
			Small Intestinal Tract
			Pancreas
		Clinical Intestinal Diseases
			Nematodiasis
				Clinical Significance and Etiology.
				Clinical Presentation.
				Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Specific Therapy.
				Prognosis and Prevention.
			Trematodiasis
			Cestodiasis
			Cryptosporidiosis
				Clinical Significance, Etiology, and Presentation.
				Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Specific Therapy.
				Prognosis and Prevention.
			Amoebiasis
				Clinical Significance, Etiology, and Presentation.
				Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Specific Therapy.
				Prognosis and Prevention.
			Coccidiosis
				Clinical Significance, Etiology, Presentation, and Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Specific Therapy, Prognosis, and Prevention.
			Nonpathogenic Protozoa (Amoeba, Flagellates, and Ciliates)
				Specific Therapy, Prognosis and Prevention.
			Bacterial Enteritis
				Clinical Significance and Presentation.
				Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Specific Therapy, Prognosis, and Prevention.
			Fungal Enteritis
			Viral Enteritis
			Nutritional Disorders
				Clinical Significance, Etiology, and Presentation.
				Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Specific Therapy.
			Foreign Bodies
				Clinical Significance and Presentation.
				Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Specific Therapy.
				Prognosis and Prevention.
			Intestinal Neoplasia
				Clinical Significance and Presentation.
				Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Therapy and Prognosis.
		Clinical Pancreatic Diseases
			Pancreatitis
				Clinical Significance, Etiology, and Presentation.
				Diagnostic Confirmation and Therapy.
			Pancreatic Neoplasia
		References
		References
	75 Gastroenterology—Cloaca
		Anatomy
			Snakes
			Lizards
			Chelonians
		Physiology
		Cloacal Organ Prolapse
			Clinical Presentation
			Triage
			Prolapse Protection
			Diagnosis
			History
			Physical Examination
			Clinical Pathology
			Imaging
			Prognosis
			Treatment
			Prolapse Reduction
			Specific Prolapse Management Plans
				Phallus (Chelonian)
					Known etiological cause(s).
				Hemepenis(es) (Squamate)
					Known etiological cause(s).
				Oviduct (Oviparous Species)
					Known etiologic cause(s).
					Prevention.
				Colon (All Species)
					Known etiological cause(s).
				Bladder (All Chelonians and Some Lizards)
					Known etiological cause(s).
		References
		References
	76 Pulmonology
		Anatomy
			Snakes
			Lizards
			Chelonians
				Crocodilians.
		Physiology
		Clinical Investigation
			History and Physical Examination
				Snakes.
				Lizards.
				Chelonians.
				Crocodilians.
			Hematology, Biochemistry, and Serology
			Radiography
			Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Cytology and Microbiology
			Endoscopy
				Transglottal Endoscopy.
				Transcutaneous Endoscopy.
			Surgical Biopsy
		General Approach to Treatment
			Antimicrobial Therapy
				Nebulization.
				Intrapulmonic Treatment.
		Specific Respiratory Tract Diseases
			Tracheitis and Tracheal Obstruction
				Clinical Significance.
				Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Specific Treatment.
				Prognosis.
			Bacterial Pneumonia
				Clinical Significance.
				Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Specific Treatment.
				Prognosis.
			Fungal Pneumonia
				Clinical Significance.
				Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Specific Treatment.
				Prognosis.
			Viral Pneumonia
				Clinical Significance.
				Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Specific Treatment.
				Prognosis.
			Verminous Pneumonia
				Clinical Significance.
				Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Specific Treatment.
				Prognosis.
			Noninfectious Pneumonia
		References
		References
	77 Neurology
		Functional Neuroanatomy
		Neurological Examination and Lesion Localization
			Cranial Nerve Examination
		Neurodiagnostic Techniques
			Imaging
				Intrathecal Contrast-Enhanced Imaging.
				Computed Tomography (CT).
				Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI).
			Cerebrospinal Fluid Analysis
			Electrodiagnostics
		Diseases Affecting the Reptilian Nervous System
			Infectious Diseases
				Protozoa
					Acanthamoeba meningoencephalitis.
				Bacteria.
					Spinal osteopathy/discospondylitis/osteomyelitis.
				Viruses
					Paramyxovirus.
					Inclusion body disease of boids.
			Nutritional Diseases
				Thiamine Deficiency.
				Biotin Deficiency.
				Hypocalcemia.
				Hypovitaminosis E.
			Trauma
				Brain Injury.
				Spinal Cord Injury.
				Peripheral Nerve Injury.
			Vascular Diseases and Circulatory Disturbances
			Metabolic Diseases
				Xanthomatosis.
				Freeze Damage.
				Hypoglycemia.
				Hepatic Encephalopathy.
			Congenital Diseases
				Caudal Coiling Syndrome.
			Toxicities
				Chlorhexidine.
				Insecticides.
				Ivermectin.
				Antimicrobials.
				Heavy Metal Intoxication.
				Bromethalin.
				Other Toxins.
			Neoplasia
		Conclusion
		Acknowledgments
		References
		References
	78 Oncology
		Diagnosis
		Suitability of the Patient for Treatment
		Staging
		Describing the Prognosis With Statistics
		Treatment
			Palliative Intent Treatment
			Curative Intent Treatment
			Surgery
				Intracapsular Surgery.
				Marginal Surgery.
				Curative Intent Surgery.
				Wide Excisional Surgery.
				Radical Excisional Surgery.
		References
		References
	79 Endocrinology
		Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis)
		Thyroid Gland
			Thyroid Testing
			Overview of Thyroid Disease
			Euthyroid Sick Syndrome
			Hypothyroidism
			Hyperthyroidism
			Miscellaneous Thyroid Conditions
		Ultimobranchial Gland
		Parathyroid Glands, Vitamin D3, and Calcium Homeostasis
			Hyperparathyroidism
		Pancreas
			Pancreatitis
		Hyperglycemia
			Management of Hyperglycemia
		Hypoglycemia
		Adrenal Glands
		References
		References
	80 Theriogenology
		Anatomy and Physiology
			Male Reproductive Tract
				Testes.
				Epididymis/Vas Deferens.
				Renal Sexual Segment.
				Copulatory Organ(s).
			Female Reproductive Tract
				Ovaries.
				Oviducts.
				Copulatory Homologue.
			Cloacal Scent Glands (Snakes)
		Reproductive Cycles
			Spermatogenic Cycle
			Vitellogenic Cycle
		Fecundity and Clutch Dynamics
		Courtship
		Copulation
		Fertilization
		Reproductive Strategies
			Oviparity
			Viviparity
			Parthenogenesis
			Parental Care
		Sexual Maturity
		Sex Identification
			Secondary Sexual Characteristics
			Tail-Base Transillumination
			Cloacal Probing
			Manual Eversion of Hemipenes
			Hydrostatic Eversion of the Hemipenes
			Digital Palpation of Cloaca
			Plasma Sex Hormone Evaluation
			Radiography
			Ultrasonography
			CT/MRI
			Surgical or Endoscopic Sex Determination
			Temperature-Dependent Sex Determination
			Genotyping (DNA/Molecular Sexing)
		Captive Breeding
			Breeding Stock
			Seasonal Cooling
			Other Stimuli of Reproduction
			Frequency of Reproduction in Captive Reptiles
			Determination of Gravidity (Pregnancy)
			Gestation and Oviposition
			Nesting Sites/Ovipositoria
		Artificial Insemination
			Semen Collection
			Sperm Analysis
			Sperm Storage and Cryopreservation
			AI Procedures and Techniques
		Reproductive Diseases
			Clinical Investigation
				Historical Information and Presentation.
				Physical Examination.
				Hematology and Biochemistry.
				Radiography.
				Ultrasonography.
				Computed Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI).
				Endoscopy.
				Cytology/Biopsy.
				Coeliotomy.
			General Approach to Treatment
				Prevention.
				Initial Therapy.
		Common Reproductive Diseases/Disorders
			Male
				Seasonal Behavioral Aggression
					Clinical significance.
					Prognosis and prevention.
				Testicular Disorders
					Orchitis
				Copulatory Organ Pathology(Prolapse and Abscessation)
					Clinical significance and known etiological cause(s).
					Clinical presentation.
					Diagnostic confirmation.
			Female
				Behavioral Aggression.
					Clinical presentation, preferred treatment(s), prognosis, and prevention.
				Ovarian Disorders
					Follicular stasis
					Oophoritis
				Oviductal Disorders
					Salpingitis and pyosalpinx
					Oviductal rupture and ectopic eggs
					Oviductal prolapse
					Dystocia
			Scent Gland Adenitis (Snakes)
				Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Preferred Treatment(s).
				Prognosis and Prevention.
			Neoplasia
				Clinical Significance.
				Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Preferred Treatment(s), Prognosis, and Prevention.
			Infertility/Low Fecundity
				Clinical Significance.
				Known Etiological Cause(s).
				Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Preferred Treatment(s).
				Prognosis and Prevention.
		References
		References
	81 Musculoskeletal System
		Anatomy and Physiology
			Muscle
			Bone
			Musculoskeletal Anatomy
				Amphibia.
				Ophidia (Snakes).
				Lacertilia, Amphisbaenia, and Sphenodontia (Lizards, Legless Lizards, and Tuatara).
				Chelonians.
				Crocodilians.
			Locomotion
				Snakes.
				Lizards.
				Crocodilians.
			Bone Healing
		General Approach to Case Management
			Examination
			Diagnostic Imaging
			Therapeutics
		Musculoskeletal Diseases
			Vitamin E and Selenium Deficiency
			Metabolic Bone Diseases
				Clinical Significance.
				Known Etiological Cause(s) and Clinical Presentation
					Nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism.
					Renal secondary hyperparathyroidism.
				Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Specific Therapy.
				Prognosis and Prevention.
			Trauma and Fractures
				Clinical Significance, Known Etiological Cause(s), and Clinical Presentation.
				Diagnostic Confirmation and Specific Therapy.
				Prognosis and Prevention.
			Osteomyelitis and Arthritis
				Clinical Significance.
				Known Etiological Cause(s) and Clinical Presentation.
				Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Specific Therapy.
				Prognosis and Prevention.
			Noninfectious Arthropathy and Gout
				Clinical Significance.
				Known Etiological Cause(s) and Clinical Presentation.
				Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Specific Therapy, Prognosis, and Prevention.
			Spinal Osteopathy
				Definition and Clinical Significance.
				Known Etiological Cause(s) and Clinical Presentation.
				Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Specific Therapy, Prognosis, and Prevention.
			Neoplasia
				Clinical Significance.
				Known Etiological Cause(s) and Clinical Presentation.
				Diagnostic Confirmation.
				Specific Therapy, Prognosis, and Prevention.
			Disorders of the Tail
				Clinical Significance, Known Etiological Cause(s), and Clinical Presentation.
				Diagnostic Confirmation, Therapy, Prognosis, and Prevention.
			Supernumerary Limbs
				Clinical Significance.
				Known Etiological Cause(s) and Clinical Presentation.
				Diagnostic Confirmation, Therapy, Prognosis, and Prevention.
			Spindly Leg
				Clinical Significance, Known Etiological Cause(s), and Clinical Presentation.
				Diagnostic Confirmation, Therapy, Prognosis, and Prevention.
			Rhamphotheca and Digits
			Congenital Deformities
		Acknowledgments
		References
		References
	82 Vascular, Hematopoietic, and Immune Systems
		Vascular Anatomy and Physiology
			Chemoreceptors
			Vascular Shunting
		Vascular Diseases
			Metabolic Vascular Disease
			Bacterial Thromboembolic Disease
			Congenital and Developmental Vascular Diseases
		Hematopoietic System and Immunology
			Cellular Immunology
			Humeral Immunology and Acute Phase Proteins
		Hematopoietic Disease
			Hemoparasites
				Helminths—Family Ascarididae
					Nematodes (e.g., Ophidascaris).
				Helminths—Family Onchocercidae, Subfamily Dirofilariinae
					Microfilaria (e.g., Foleyella, Oswaldofilaria).
				Trematodes—Family Spirorchidae
					Digenetic Spirorchid Flukes (e.g., Spirorchis, Henotosoma, Vasotrema).
				Other Parasites.
			Viruses Causing Anemia
			Neoplasia of the Hemopoietic System
			Neoplasia of the Vascular System
			Immune-Mediated Hemopoietic Disease
			Toxic Anemia
		References
		References
	83 Clinical Behavioral Medicine
		Anatomy and Physiology of the Brain and Behavioral Responses
		Approach to Behavioral Appointments
			Anamnesis, Physical Examination, and Behavior
		Clinical Diseases
			Husbandry-Related Behavioral Disorders
			Behavioral Issues Related to Feeding
			Social Behavior
			Handling and Behavior
			Reproduction and Behavior
			Behavioral Changes Associated With Medical Issues
		Conclusion
		Acknowledgments
		References
		References
	84 Nutritional Diseases
		Nutritional Secondary Hyperparathyroidism
			Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
			Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
			Preferred Treatment(s)
			Prognosis and Prevention
		Hypovitaminosis A
			Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
			Clinical Presentation
			Diagnostic Confirmation
			Preferred Treatment
				Vitamin A Therapy in Reptiles.
				Vitamin A Therapy in Amphibians.
			Prognosis and Prevention
		Hypervitaminosis A
			Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
			Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
			Preferred Treatment
			Prognosis and Prevention
		Obesity
			Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
			Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
			Preferred Treatment
			Prognosis and Prevention
		Hepatic Lipidosis
			Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
			Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
			Preferred Treatment
			Prognosis and Prevention
		Pyramidal Shell Growth (PSG)
			Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
			Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
			Preferred Treatment
			Prognosis and Prevention
		Thiamine Deficiency
			Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
			Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
			Preferred Treatment
			Prognosis and Prevention
		Gout and Hyperuricemia
			Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
			Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
			Preferred Treatments
			Prognosis and Prevention
		Vitamin E/Selenium Deficiency
			Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
			Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
			Preferred Treatment
			Prognosis and Prevention
		Protein Deficiency
			Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
			Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
			Preferred Treatment
			Prognosis and Prevention
		Geophagy
			Clinical Significance and Etiological Causes
			Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
			Preferred Treatment
			Prognosis and Prevention
		Goiter
			Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
			Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
			Preferred Treatments
		Corneal Lipidosis/Xanthomatosis
			Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
			Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
			Preferred Treatment, Prognosis, and Prevention
		Biotin Deficiency
		Fiber-Related Disorders
		References
		References
	85 Perinatology
		The Reptilian Egg
		Incubation Conditions
			Humidity
			Temperature
		Artificial Incubation
		Natural Incubation
		Egg Diagnostic Procedures
		Hatching and Manual Pipping
		Neonatal/Hatchling Care and Medicine
			Maternal Care
			Husbandry
		Neonate Diagnostic Procedures
		Diseases
			Yolk Sac Diseases
			Infectious Diseases
			Husbandry-Associated Diseases
			Congenital Diseases
		Treatment Considerations
		References
		References
	86 Geriatric Medicine
		Veterinary Care of the Geriatric Patient
		Palliative and Hospice Veterinary Care
		References
		References
	87 Emergency and Critical Care
		Physiology and Osmolarity of Body Fluids
		Triage and Initial Assessment
			Emergency Anamnesis
			Temperature, Pulse, and Respiration (TPR)
			Confirmation of Death
		Diagnostics and Monitoring
			Mucus Membrane Color, Capillary Refill Time, Blood Pressure
			Blood Collection
			Assessment of Dehydration, Acid-Base, Electrolytes, and Perfusion
			Diagnostic Imaging
			Electrocardiography
			Pulse Oximetry
		Therapy and Intervention
			Oxygen Therapy
			Cardiopulmonary Cerebral Resuscitation
			Fluid Therapy
				Crystalloid Fluids.
				Colloids.
				Whole Blood.
			Analgesics
			Antibiotics
			Other Therapeutics
		Common Reptile Emergencies
			Traumatic Emergencies
			Respiratory/Cardiac Emergencies
			Urogenital Emergencies
			Neurologic Emergencies
			Gastrointestinal Emergencies
		References
		References
	88 Toxicology
		Emergency Treatment
		Parenteral Antiparasitic Drugs
			Ivermectin
			Fenbendazole
			Metronidazole
		Parenteral Antimicrobial Drugs
			Antifungal Toxicity
				Amphotericin B.
				Griseofulvin.
				Imidazoles (Ketoconazole) and Triazoles (Fluconazole and Itraconazole).
			Antibiotic Toxicity
				Gentamicin.
				Amikacin.
				Chloramphenicol.
				Enrofloxacin.
			Miscellaneous Drugs And Products
				Chlorhexidine Versus Iodine Toxicity
				Bleach
				Dioctyl Sodium Sulfosuccinate (DSS)
				Vitamin Toxicity
					Vitamin A Toxicity.
				Organophosphates and Carbamates
				Pyrethrins and Pyrethroids
				Rodenticides
					Anticoagulants.
					Cholecalciferol.
				Repticides
					Alpha-Chloralose.
				Heavy Metal Toxicosis
					Zinc Toxicosis.
		Venomous and Poisonous Animals
			Snake Envenomations
			Lizard Envenomations
			Amphibian Toxins
			Fire Ants
			Firefly Toxicosis
		Smoke Inhalation
		Poisonous Plants
			Heaths (Family: Ericaceae)
			Yews (Family: Taxaceae)
			Lilies (Family: Liliaceae, Xanthorrhoeaceae, Asparagaceae)
			Fruit Seeds
			Avocado
			Ricins (Ricinus communis)
			Cycad (Sago) Palms (Cycas revoluta)
			Holly (Ilex spp.), Mistletoe (Viscum spp.), and Poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima)
			Plants Containing Cardiac Glycosides
			Ivy (Hedera spp.)
			Plants Containing Nicotine
			Oak (Quercus spp.)
			Marijuana (Cannabis sativa)
			Mushrooms
		Diets to Avoid
		Conclusion
		Acknowledgments
		References
		References
	89 Amphibian Medicine
		Examination and Physical Restraint
		Anesthesia and Chemical Restraint
		Euthanasia
		Clinical Techniques
		Nutritional Diseases
			Nutritional Secondary Hyperparathyroidism (NSHP)
			Hypovitaminosis A
			Obesity
			Gastric Overload or Impaction
			Nutritional Support
		Infectious Diseases
			Viral Diseases
			Bacterial Diseases
			Fungal and Algal Diseases
			Mesomycetozoans
		Protozoal Diseases
			Amoebiasis
			Ciliated Protozoa
			Miscellaneous Protozoa
		Metazoal Diseases
			Nematodes
			Trematodes and Cestodes
			Other Metazoan Parasites
		Toxicities
		Environmental Conditions
			Dehydration
			Abrasions
			Water Quality
			Trauma
			Hyperthermia
			Hypothermia
			Noise and Vibration
		Syndromes of Uncertain Etiology
			Spindly Leg
			Corneal Lipidosis (Lipid Keratosis)
			Gout
			Gastric and Cloacal Prolapse
		Neoplastic Disease
		Medical Treatments
			Routes of Delivery
		Aknowledgments
		References
		References
10 Surgery
	90 Surgical Equipment, Instrumentation, and General Principles
		Wound Healing
		Surgical Equipment and Supplies
			Instrumentation
			Lighting and Magnification
			Hemostasis
			Surgical Lasers and Radiosurgery
				CO2 Laser.
				Diode Laser.
				Radiosurgery.
			Cryosurgery
			Intraoperative Fluoroscopy
			Intraoperative Temperature Support
			Suture Materials
			Antibiotics
		Positioning, Ergonomics, and Preparation
			Patient
			Surgeon Ergonomics
			Presurgical Preparation and Draping
		Postoperative Care
		References
		References
	91 Eye
		Equipment Specific to Ophthalmologic Surgery
		Specific Ophthalmologic Procedures
			Eyelid Repair
			Spectacle Debridement and Spectaculectomy
			Pseudobuphthalmos
			Spectacle Avulsion
			Gecko Retained “Eye Caps”
			Corneal Repair
			Corneal Plaque (Keratitis) Removal
			Cataract Surgery
			Enucleation
		References
		References
	92 Ear
		Aural Abscess
		References
		References
	93 Rhinarium
		Trauma, Abscess, and Osteomyelitis
		Foreign Bodies and Rhinoliths
		References
		References
	94 Oral Cavity, Mandible, Maxilla, and Beak
		Glossitis and Glossal Prolapse
			Glossal Repair
			Partial and Complete Glossectomy
		Oral Masses and Stomatitis
		Facial Masses and Osteomyelitis
		Overgrown Beak (Rhamphotheca)
		Fractures (Beak, Maxilla, and Mandible)
		References
		References
	95 Venomoid Surgery
		Snakes
		Gila Monster Venomoid Surgery
		References
		References
	96 Integument
		Surgical Site Preparation
		Skin Incisions and Wound Closure
		Subcutaneous Masses (Abscesses, Parasitic Cysts, and Neoplasms)
		Open Wound Management
		References
		References
	97 Snake Coeliotomy
	98 Lizard Coeliotomy
		Positioning and Preparation
		Ventral Coeliotomy
		Lateral (Flank) Coeliotomy
		References
		References
	99 Chelonian Prefemoral Coeliotomy
		Patient Positioning and Preparation
		Surgical Technique
		References
		References
	100 Chelonian Transplastron Coeliotomy
		Patient Positioning and Preparation
		Surgical Technique
		References
		References
	101 Crocodilian Coeliotomy
		References
		References
	102 Lower Respiratory Tract
		Tracheal Resection
		Lung Biopsy
		Mass/Abscess/Granuloma Removal
		References
		References
	103 Gastrointestinal Tract
		Principles of Gastrointestinal Surgery in Reptiles
		Perioperative Care
		Biopsy of the Gastrointestinal Tract
		Hepatic Biopsy/Partial Hepatectomy
		Pancreatic Biopsy
		References
		References
	104 Urinary Tract
		Cystotomy and Cystectomy
		Renal Biopsy
		Nephrectomy
		References
		References
	105 Reproductive Tract
		Male Reproductive Surgery
			Orchiectomy/Orchidectomy
				Lizards.
				Chelonians.
			Testicular Biopsy
			Phallectomy and Hemipenal Amputation
		Female Reproductive Surgery
			Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy
			Lizards
				Preventative/Elective and Postovulatory Ovariectomy.
				Ovariectomy (Preovulatory Follicular Stasis).
				Salpingectomy.
				Salpingotomy.
			Snakes
				Ovariectomy.
				Salpingectomy.
				Salpingotomy.
			Chelonians
				Ovariectomy.
				Salpingectomy.
				Salpingotomy.
			Yolk Coelomitis and Ectopic Follicles/Eggs
			Ovarian Biopsy
		References
		References
	106 Cloacal Prolapse
		Phallus (Chelonian)/Hemipenis (Squamate) Prolapse
		Oviduct Prolapse
		Large Intestine (Rectal/Colonic) Prolapse
		Bladder Prolapse
		References
		References
	107 Amphibian Soft Tissue Surgery
		Equipment
		Surgical Preparation and Postoperative Care
		Toe Clip
		Implantation of Transponder
		Cloacal Prolapse
		Coeliotomy
		Ocular Surgery
		Celioscopy
		References
		References
	108 Orthopedic Principles and External Coaptation
		Preoperative and Postoperative Care
		External Coaptation
		Acknowledgments
		References
		References
	109 Fracture Fixation and Arthrodesis
		Bone Grafting
		Complications of Fracture Repair
		Arthrodesis
		Physical Therapy
		Acknowledgments
		References
		References
	110 Skull and Spinal Fracture Repair
		Skull Fractures
		Spinal Fractures
		References
		References
	111 Limb Amputation
		References
		References
	112 Tail Amputation
		References
		References
	113 Shell Surgery and Repair
		Triage of Shell Trauma
			Excellent Prognosis
			Good Prognosis
			Fair Prognosis
			Guarded Prognosis
			Grave Prognosis
			Emergency Therapy and Initial Diagnostics
		Initial Shell Injury and Fracture Management
			Shell Wound Care
		Nutritional Support
		Surgical Management
			Anesthesia
			Fracture Repair and Fixation
				Adhesives and Epoxy.
				Fixation With Hardware.
				Screw and Wire Fixation.
				Fixation Techniques for Young or Small-Sized Chelonians.
				Cable Tie and Hook Fixation.
				Epoxy and Metal Fixation.
			Monitoring and Healing Time
			Removal of External Fixation
		Management of Dog or Predator Bites
		Conclusion
		References
		References
11 Therapy
	114 Therapeutic Overview and General Approach
		Development of a Therapeutic Plan
		Environmental Considerations
		Reptile Immune Response
		Nutritional Status
		Hydration Status
		References
		References
	115 Routes of Administration
		Routes of Drug and Fluid Administration
			Enteral Routes of Administration
			Parenteral Routes of Administration
				Subcutaneous.
				Intracoelomic.
				Intramuscular.
				Intravenous.
				Intraosseous.
				Intrathecal Administration.
				Intracardiac Administration.
			Additional Routes of Administration
				Nebulization.
				Intralesional Therapy.
				Transdermal Therapy.
				Osmotic Pumps.
				Programmable Infusion Pumps.
				Long-Acting (Depot) Formulations.
				Vascular Access Ports.
				Topical Administration.
			Implications of the Renal Portal System and Administration Route
				Treatment of Eggs
		References
		References
	116 Antibiotic Therapy
		Antibiotic Selection
		Indiscriminant Antibiotic Use in Herpetological Medicine
		Minimizing Indiscriminate Antibiotic Use in Herpetological Medicine
		Antibiotic Drugs
			Aminoglycosides
				Amikacin.
				Gentamicin.
				Tobramyacin.
			β-Lactam Antibiotics
				Penicillins.
			Cephalosporins
				Ceftazidime.
				Cefoperazone.
				Ceftiofur
					Ceftiofur sodium.
				Cefovecin.
				Cefquinome.
				Carbapenems and Glycopeptides.
				Tetracyclines.
				Chloramphenicol.
				Florfenicol.
				Macrolides
					Azithromycin.
					Tulathromycin.
				Lincosamides
					Clindamycin.
				Sulfonamides.
				Fluoroquinolones.
					Enrofloxacin.
					Marbofloxacin.
					Danofloxacin.
				Metronidazole.
		Conclusion
		References
		References
	117 Antifungal Therapy
		Systemic Antifungal Therapy
			Amphotericin B
			Azole Antifungals
				Imidazoles
					Ketoconazole.
				Triazoles
					Fluconazole.
					Voriconazole.
					Posaconazole.
		Other Systemic Antifungals
			Terbinafine
		Topical Antifungal Therapy
			Ketoconazole
			Miconazole
			Nystatin
			Clotrimazole
			Terbinafine
		References
		References
	118 Antiviral Therapy
		Acyclovir, Valacyclovir, Famciclovir, and Cidofovir
		Lysine
		Disinfectants
		Miscellaneous Drugs
		Temperature Regulation
		Immunomodulators
		Treating Secondary Infections
		Vaccination
		References
		References
	119 Antiinflammatory Therapy
		Nonsteroidal Antiinflammatory Drugs
			Meloxicam
			Carprofen
			Ketoprofen
			Flunixin Meglumine
			Flurbiprofen
		Glucocorticoids
			Dexamethasone
			Prednisolone
			Methylprednisolone
		Conclusion
		References
		References
	120 Antiparasitic Therapy
		Endoparasiticides
			Antiprotozoals
			Anthelminthics
				Nematodes.
				Cestodes and Trematodes.
		Ectoparasiticides
			Ticks
			Mites
		References
		References
	121 Mental Health Treatment (Psychopharmacology and Behavior Therapy)
		Welfare and Psychological Well-Being
			Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
			Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
			Preferred Medical Therapy
			Desensitization and Counterconditioning Therapy
			Environmental Enrichment and Management
			Pyschopharmacology and Endocrine Therapy
			Patient Follow-Up
		References
		References
	122 Nutritional Therapy
		Metabolic Scaling
		Dehydration and Oral Fluid Therapy
		Nutritional Support
			Refeeding Syndrome
			Stomach Tubing
			Stomach Volume
			Esophagostomy Tubes
			Critical Care Nutritional Foods
		References
		References
	123 Cancer Chemotherapy
		Calculating a Dose of Chemotherapy
		Chemotherapeutic Strategies
		Basic Chemotherapy Drug Handling
		Toxicity Following Chemotherapy
		Chemotherapy Drug Administration
		Chemotherapy Drug Dosing
		References
		References
	124 Radiation Therapy
		Side Effects
		Linear Accelerator and Cobalt-60
		Strontium 90
		Radioactive Implants
		Conclusion
		Acknowledgments
		References
		References
	125 Miscellaneous Drug Therapy
		Gastrointestinal
		Reproductive
		Renal
		Hepatic
		References
		References
	126 Allometric Scaling
		Physiological Application of Scaling
		Pharmacological Application of Scaling
		Review of Technique
			Choosing a Model
			Derivation of a Completely New Application
		Conclusion
		Acknowledgment
		References
		References
	127 Reptile Formulary
		References
		References
	128 Amphibian Formulary
		References
		References
	129 Photobiomodulation (Low-Level Laser Therapy)
		Wound Healing
		Equipment and Techniques
		Therapeutic Effects
		Therapeutic Plan
		References
		References
	130 Wound Management
		General Wound Management
			Husbandry and Management of the Patient
			Initial Wound Evaluation and Diagnostic Evaluation
			Wound Lavage and Debridement
			Wound Closure
			Topical Products
		Basic Bandaging Techniques
		Specialized Bandaging Techniques
			Tie-Over Bandage
			Vacuum-Assisted Closure Therapy
		Supplemental Therapies
		References
		References
	131 Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation
		Physical Therapy
			Response of Musculoskeletal Tissues to Disuse and Remobilization
			Limb Paresis/Paralysis
			Physical Rehabilitation
				Exercise and Joint Mobilization.
				Heat Therapy.
				Electrical Stimulation.
				Massage.
				Vibrations.
			Orthopedics
				Loss of Limbs.
				Aquatic Therapy.
			Rehabilitation Terrariums
			Nutrition During Rehabilitation
			Rehabilitation of Wild Reptiles
			Aid to Adaptation
			Unrecoverable Reptiles
			Value of Nonreleasable Animals
			Releasable vs Nonreleasable Decision Making
		Release Strategy
			When and Where to Release
			Rewilding Programs
		Acknowledgments
		References
		References
	132 Complementary and Integrative Veterinary Therapies
		Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine
		Acupuncture
		Herbal Medicine
			Active Constituents and Actions
			Herbal Energetics
			General Use of Herbs in Veterinary Practice
			Dosing and Administration of Herbal Medicines
		Nutrition and Nutraceuticals
		Tui-Na
		Chiropractic
		Homeopathy
		Resources for Further Information and Study
		References
		References
12 Differential Diagnoses by Clinical Signs
	133 Differential Diagnoses by Clinical Signs—Snakes
		Behavioral Signs
		Cardiovascular Signs
		Gastrointestinal Signs
			Emesis (Vomiting and Regurgitation)
			Diarrhea
			Oral Cavity
			Esophagus and Stomach
			Intestines
		Ocular Signs
		Dermatological Signs
			Subcutaneous and Cutaneous Masses
		Musculoskeletal Signs
		Neurological Signs
		Reproductive Signs
		Respiratory Signs
		Systemic Signs
			Asthenia
			Weight Change and Body Condition
			Coelomic Distension
			Anorexia
			Acute Mortalities
		References
		References
	134 Differential Diagnoses by Clinical Signs—Lizards
		Musculoskeletal Signs
			Lameness and Skeletal and Spinal Abnormalities
			Tail
			Deformities
		Dermatological Signs
			Dermatitis, Abrasions, Ulcerations, and Open Sores
			Crusts, Scabs, Flakes, and Dysecdysis
			Swellings, Nodules, and Blisters
			Abnormalities in Color, Abnormal Scale Patterns, and Color Change
			Scars
		Gastrointestinal Signs
			Oral Cavity
				Petechiae.
				Stomatitis, Ulcerations, and Exudates.
				Oral Discharge and Ptyalism.
				Pharyngeal Edema.
				Mucous Membrane Color.
				Tongue.
				Dental Disease.
			Anorexia
			Vomiting and Regurgitation
			Diarrhea
			Constipation
			Prolapse From the Cloaca
		Reproductive Signs
			Infertility
			Stillbirths and Hatch Failure
			Dystocia
		Respiratory Signs
			Dyspnea
			Nasal Discharge
			Abnormal Vocalizations
		Ocular Signs
			Palpebral and Spectacle Abnormalities
			Corneal Abnormalities
			Lens Abnormalities
		Neurological Signs
			Convulsions, Twitching, Coma, Ataxia, and Head Tilts
			Paralysis and Paresis
		Behavioral Signs
			Aggression
			Reproduction
		Systemic Signs
			Weight Loss
			Distended Coelom
			Lethargy
			Polydipsia and Polyurea
			Acute Mortalities
		References
		References
	135 Differential Diagnoses by Clinical Signs—Chelonians
		Acute Mortalities
		Dermatological Signs
			Cutaneous or Subcutaneous Swelling
			Erythema
			Aural Abscess (Protrusion of the Tympanic Scale)
			Whitish Growth on Skin
			Whitish Areas on Shell
			Algae Growth on Shell
			Sloughing Skin
			Sloughing Scutes
			Shell Ulceration and Necrosis
			Fractures of the Shell
			Overgrown Rhamphotheca (Beak) and Toenails
			Soft Shell
			Distorted Shell
			Pyramidal Shell Growth
			Dermal Fistulas
			Edema or Ascites
		Gastrointestinal Signs
			Anorexia
			Poor Body Condition
			Pale Tongue and Mucous Membranes
			Infectious Stomatitis
			Moisture or Dried Mucus on Rhamphotheca (Beak)
			Constipation
			Emesis/Regurgitation
			Bloating
			Diarrhea
			Mass Protruding From Cloaca
			Bleeding From Cloaca
			Dilated Cloaca
		Respiratory Signs
			Nasal Discharge
			Nasal Abnormalities
			Dyspnea and Abnormal Breath Sounds
			Uneven Floating
			Inability to Submerge
		Reproductive Signs
			Phallus Prolapse or Mass Protruding From Cloaca
			Failure to Lay Eggs
			Mass in Coelom
		Musculoskeletal Signs
			Lameness
			Asymmetrical Toenail Wear
			Swollen Joints
			Swollen Long Bones
			Temporal Muscle Atrophy
		Neurological Signs
			Ataxia/Hypermetric Gait
			Circling
			Flaccid Paresis, Paralysis, or Coma
			Hind-Limb Paresis
		Ocular Signs
			Blindness
			Palpebra Edema
			Exophthalmia
			Enophthalmia
			Conjunctivitis and Ocular Discharge
		References
		References
	136 Differential Diagnoses by Clinical Signs—Crocodilians
		Stress and Immunosuppression
		Systemic Signs
			Anorexia, Lethargy, and Acute Mortalities
			Poor Growth and Runting
		Dermatological Signs
			Dermatophilosis (Brown Spot Disease)
			Pox Virus
			West Nile Virus
		Neurological Signs
			West Nile Virus
		Respiratory Signs
			Mycoplasmosis
			Mycobacteriosis
		Musculoskeletal Signs
		Gastrointestinal Signs
		Ocular Signs
			Chlamydia
		Miscellaneous
		References
		References
	137 Differential Diagnoses by Clinical Signs—Amphibians
		Acute Mortalities
		Coelomic Distension
			Abnormal Fluid Accumulation (Hydrocoelom/Lymphedema)
			Obesity
			Reproductive Activity
			Gastrointestinal Impaction/Foreign Bodies
			Organomegaly (Neoplasia and Granulomatous Disease)
		Gastrointestinal Signs
			Tissue Prolapse
			Anorexia (Hyporexia)
			Thin Frog/Emaciation
			Reduced Fecal Production
			Diarrhea
		Dermatological Signs
			Erythema
			Abrasions/Lacerations
			Dehydration
			Cutaneous Masses
		Musculoskeletal Signs
			Ambulation Difficulties
			Developmental Abnormalities (Polymelia and Spindly Leg)
		Ocular Signs
			Increased Corneal Opacity
			Conjunctivitis, Dacryocystitis, and Uveitis
			Corneal Ulceration
			Lens Opacity
		References
		References
13 Specific Disease/Case Summary
	138 Abscesses/Fibriscesses
		Definition
		Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Signs and Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
		References
		References
	139 Acariasis
		Definition
		Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Signs
		Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
		Treatment
			Acaricides—Mites
				Preferred Treatment
				Alternative Therapies
				Treatments No Longer Recommended (Either Unsafe or Ineffective)
			Acaricides—Ticks
				Preferred Treatment
				Alternative Treatments
		Prognosis and Prevention
		References
		References
	140 Amphibian Chytridiomycosis
		Definition and Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Significance
		Clinical Presentation
		Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s) and Prevention
		References
		References
	141 Aural/Tympanic Abscessation
		Definition
		Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
		References
		References
	142 Bite Wounds and Prey-Induced Trauma
		Definition
		Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
		References
		References
	143 Cloacal Prolapse
		Definition
		Clinical Significance
		Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Presentation
		Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
		References
		References
	144 Cloacal Scent Gland Adenitis
		Definition
		Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
		References
		References
	145 Diarrhea
		Definition
		Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
	146 Digit Abnormalities
		Definition
		Clinical Significance
		Ischemia
		Swollen Toes and Joints
		Twitching Toes
		Skin Abnormalities
		References
		References
	147 Dysecdysis
		Definition
		Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prevention
		References
		References
	148 Dystocia and Follicular Stasis
		Definition
		Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Presentation
		Diagnostic Confirmation
		Medical Treatment and Egg Manipulation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
		References
		References
	149 Gout
		Definition
		Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Presentation
		Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
		References
		References
	150 Hemoparasites
		Definition
		Clinical Significance and Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
		References
		References
	151 Hepatic Lipidosis
		Definition
		Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
		References
		References
	152 Hyperglycemia
		Definition
		Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prevention and Prognosis
		References
		References
	153 Hypovitaminosis and Hypervitaminosis A
		Definition
		Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Presentation
		Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
	154 Inclusion Body Disease (Reptarenavirus)
		Definition
		Clinical Signs
		Pathology
		Dignostic Confirmation
		Preferred treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
		References
		References
	155 Lizard Cryptosporidiosis
		Definition
		Clinical Significance And Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
		References
		References
	156 Neurological Disorders
		References
		References
	157 Nutritional Secondary Hyperparathyroidism
		Definition
		Clinical Significance
		Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Presentation
		Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
	158 Paramyxoviruses (Ferlaviruses)
		Definition, Clinical Significance, and Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Presentation
		Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
		References
		References
	159 Periodontal Disease
		Definition
		Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
		References
		References
	160 Pneumonia
		Definition
		Clinical Significance And Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Presentation And Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
	161 Pseudogout
		Definition
		Clinical Significance And Known Etiological Causes(s)
		Clinical Presentation
		Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
		References
		References
	162 Renal Disease
		Definition
		Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
	163 Salmonellosis
		Definition
		Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
		References
		References
	164 Shell Abnormalities
		Definition
		Clinical Significance and Known ETIOLOGICAL CAUSE(S)
		Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
	165 Snake Cryptosporidiosis
		Definition
		Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
		References
		References
	166 Spinal Osteopathy
		Definition
		Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
		References
		References
	167 Stomatitis
		Definition
		Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
		References
		References
	168 Tail Abnormalities
		Definition
		Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		References
		References
	169 Testudinid Herpesviruses
		Definition
		Clinical Presentation
		Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
		References
		References
	170 Thermal Burns
		Definition
		Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
		References
		References
	171 Tortoise Mycoplasmosis
		Definition
		Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Presentation
		Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
		References
		References
	172 Urolithiasis (Cystic Calculi and Cloacal Uroliths)
		Definition
		Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s)
		Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
		References
		References
	173 Vomiting and Regurgitation
		Definition and Clinical Significance
		Clinical Presentation
		Diagnostic Confirmation
		Preferred Treatment(s)
		Prognosis and Prevention
14 Population and Public Health
	174 Zoonoses and Public Health
		BACTERIA
			Salmonella
				History.
				Infection Dynamics.
				Reported Human Salmonellosis From Reptiles.
				Salmonella Bacteria and Reptiles: Information for Owners.
			Aeromonas
			Plesiomonas
			Campylobacter
			Other Enteric Bacteria
			Clostridium
			Mycobacterium
			Coxiella burnetii
			Chlamydia
		FUNGI
		VIRUSES
		Protozoa
			Cryptospordium
		PENTASTOMIDA
		Helminths
		Arthropods
		References
		References
	175 Working With Free-Ranging Amphibians and Reptiles
		Amphibian and Reptile Capture Techniques
		Handling
			Recommended Precautions to Prevent Disease and Other Health Problems
		Marking
			Recommended Precautions to Prevent Disease and Other Health Problems
				Amphibians.
				Reptiles.
			Manual Restraint, Analgesia, and Anesthesia
			Marking and Identification Methods
				Permanent Marking Methods
					Passive integrated transponder tags.
					Shell notching and drilling.
					Toe clipping.
					Cohort marks.
		Telemetry
			Radio Telemetry: Nonsurgical Placement
				Amphibians.
				Reptiles
					Crocodilians.
					Lizards.
					Snakes.
					Sea turtles.
			Radio Telemetry: Surgical Placement
				General Guidelines for Amphibian Surgery.
				General Guidelines for Reptile Surgery.
					Crocodilians.
					Snakes.
		Conclusion
		References
		References
	176 Medical Management and Rehabilitation of Sea Turtles
		Common Medical Conditions
		Physical Examination
		Clinical Pathology
		Diagnostic Imaging
		Microbiologic and Molecular Diagnostics
		Therapeutics
		Management of Oiled Turtles
		Management of Buoyancy Disorders
		Euthanasia
		Anesthesia
		Surgery
		Management of Hypothermic (Cold-Stunned) Turtles
		Leatherback Turtle Evaluation and Care
		Transport and Release
		Acknowledgments
		References
		References
	177 Commercial Reptile Farming
		Mariculture of Green Sea Turtles at the Cayman Turtle Conservation and Education Centre
			History/Background Information
			Laws and Regulations
			Husbandry
				Tanks.
				Water Supply.
				Stocking Density.
				Diet.
				Enrichment, Shade, and Cover.
				Hygiene and Preventative Medicine.
			Breeding Program
			Slaughter and Processing
		Commercial Reptile Farming of Crocodilians
			History and Background
		Alligators
			Husbandry
				Housing.
				Water Supply.
				Stocking Density.
				Diet.
				Hygiene.
				Preventive Medicine.
			Breeding Program
			Slaughter and Processing
		Crocodiles and Caimans
			Husbandry
				Housing.
				Water Supply.
				Stocking Densities.
				Diet.
				Hygiene.
				Preventive Medicine.
			Breeding Programs
			Slaughter and Processing
		General Comments on Other Species
		Conclusion
		Acknowledgements
		References
		References
	178 Large Zoo and Private Collection Management
		Population Sustainability
			Management for Sustainable Captive Populations
			Captive Management for Sustainable Wild Populations
		Husbandry Considerations for Large Collections
			Purpose of the Collection and Species to be Housed
			Animal Identification and Animal Record Systems
			Human Resources
			Building and Enclosure Design Considerations
				Indoor Facilities
				Outdoor Facilities
		Management of Husbandry Resources
		Disease Management
			New Acquisitions
			Preventive Medicine
			Biosecurity
			Sick Individuals
			Necropsy
			Integrated Pest Management
		Conclusion
		References
		References
	179 Breeders, Wholesalers, and Retailers
		Breeding Collections
		Wholesale and Retail Collections
		Husbandry-Related Conditions
		Postmortem Evaluations
		Disease Conditions
			Common Clinical Diseases
			Diseases Identified Postmortem in Retail Animals
				Chelonians.
				Lizards.
				Snakes.
			Diseases Identified Postmortem in Breeding Stock
		References
		References
	180 Laboratory Management and Medicine
		Regulatory Oversight and Accreditation Guidelines
		Funding Agency Requirements
		Publication Requirements
		The Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals
		Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee/Animal Welfare Body/Ethics Committee
		Housing and Care of Reptiles and Amphibians in the Laboratory Animal Facility
		Conclusion
		References
		References
	181 Conservation
		Current Realities—Conservation Status
		Causative Factors—Population Declines
			Habitat Alteration
			Invasive Species
			Climate Change
			Pollution
			Trade
			Infectious Diseases
		Challenges and Horizons
			Captive Breeding
			Metrics of Evaluation
			Genomics
			Eradication of Invasive Species
			Enrichment
			Governance
			Education
		Conclusion
		References
		References
	182 Herpetofauna and Ecosystem Health
		Indirect Ecosystem Services
		Nutrient and Energy Transport and Decomposition
		Food Chains, Invertebrate Response, and Functional Redundancy
		Human Health, Disease, and Mosquitos
		Water Quality
		Food and Materials From Herpetofauna
		Medicinal, Ethnobotany, and Cultural Uses
		Invasives and Ecosystem Structure and Function
		Conclusion
		References
		References
15 Legal Topics
	183 Laws and Regulations—International
		Aspects of Legislation Affecting Reptiles
		Sources of Information on International Legislation
		International Conservation Legislation
			Convention on Biological Diversity
			Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
		Matters of Particular Interest to Veterinarians
			Derivatives of CITES Specimens
			Transportation
				Captive-Bred Appendix I Specimens
			Case Studies
			Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals
		Regional Cooperation
			United Nations Environment (UNEP) Regional Seas Programme
		Law Enforcement
		Other Legislation
			Animal Welfare
			Animal Health
			Nonnative Species
		Conclusion
		References
		References
	184 Laws and Regulations—Europe
		Sources of Information on Legislation
			Levels of Legislation
		Implementation and Enforcement of Legislation
		European Regional Legislation
		Free-Ranging Reptiles
			General
			Protected Species
			Typical Prohibited or Controlled Activities Relating to Reptiles in the Wild
			Variation in National Laws
			Fieldwork That Involves Reptiles
		Captive Reptiles
			General
			Reptiles Kept as Pets
			Keeping of Protected Species
			Exhibition, Display, and Entertainment
			Scientific Research
		Trade
			EU Trade in CITES Species
		Animal Health Controls
			European Union Directives on Import and Export
			National Wildlife Legislation: the Export of Indigenous Species
			National Wildlife Legislation: the in-Country Trade in Wildlife
			Customs and Excise
		Reptiles and Veterinary Practice
			Veterinary Professional Law
			Veterinary Medicinal Products
		Occupational Health and Safety
		Welfare
			European Legislation
			National Legislation
			Welfare During Transportation
		Case Studies
		Conclusion
		References
		References
	185 Laws and Regulations—Americas
		The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
		The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
		United States Federal Regulations
			Endangered Species Act
			National Marine Fisheries Service Regulations
			Designated United States Ports of Entry
			Special Turtle Regulations
		US State Laws
			The Lacey Act (from the USFWS Website)
		Canadian Federal Regulations
		Mexican Federal Regulations
		Central and South American Regulations
		Case Examples
			Case 1
			Case 2
			Case 2a
			Case 3
			Case 4
			Case 5
			Case 6
			Case 7
		References
		References
	186 Forensics
		Legal Considerations
			General Legal Principles
				Kinds of Law.
				Judicial Systems.
			Relevant Law
			Comments on Aspects Particularly Relevant to Forensics
				Conservation.
				Trade.
				International Trade or Movement.
				Animal Health.
				Customs.
				Animal Welfare.
				Animals in Captivity.
				Reptile and Amphibian Collections.
				Research.
				Veterinary Treatment.
				Health and Safety.
				Theft.
		Providing Expert Evidence
			Witnesses
			Quality of Expert Evidence
		Considerations in Forensic Investigation
			Clinical Investigation
		Postmortem Investigation
		Laboratory Investigations
		Crime Scenes, Fieldwork, and in situ Collection of Evidence
		Record-Keeping and Collation and Analysis of Findings
		Chain of Custody
		Photography and Videography
		Documentation of Examination Procedures
		The Forensic Report
		The Collection and Packaging of Evidence
		Retention of Forensic Evidence and Other Material
		Serving as a Witness and Appearing in Court
		Conclusion
		References
		References
	187 Jurisprudence, Expert Reports, Testimony, and Court Appearance
		Principals of Being an Expert Witness
		Expert Reports
		Examination of Animals
		Reptile Welfare and Suffering
		Court Appearance and Testimony
		References
		References
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	X
	Y