Machu Picchu in Context: Interdisciplinary Approaches to the Study of Human Past

Foreword by Fernando Astete
Foreword by Ivan Ghezzi
Introduction
Contents
Part I Context
1 Machu Picchu Physiographic and Environmental Settings
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Site Location
	1.3 Weather Climate and Hydrological Setting
		1.3.1 General Weather Climatic Setting of the Whole Area
		1.3.2 The Past Climate Estimated by Glaciological Measures
		1.3.3 Recent Rainfall Data
		1.3.4 Temperature Data
		1.3.5 Hydrological Data and Discharges
		1.3.6 Survey of Land Use Conditions
		1.3.7 The Machu Picchu Reserve Area: Natural World Heritage Property
	1.4 Conclusions
	References
2 Geological Setting and Geomorphological Hazards in Machu Picchu Area
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Regional Geology
	2.3 Local Geology
	2.4 Geo-mechanical Setting
	2.5 Structural Setting
		2.5.1 Regional Structural Analysis
		2.5.2 Local Structural Analysis
	2.6 Geomorphological Features and Landslide Inventory
		2.6.1 Landslide Classification
		2.6.2 Rock Falls and Topples in the Area
		2.6.3 Rotational and Translational Slides in the Area
		2.6.4 Debris Flow, Debris Avalanches and Shallow Landslide in the Area
		2.6.5 The Landslide Inventory Map of Machu Picchu Sanctuary
	2.7 Structural Setting vs Slope Stability
	2.8 Slope Stability Analysis
	2.9 Risk Scenario and Proposals for a Management Plan of Slope Instabilities
	2.10 Conclusion
	References
3 Machu Picchu in the Context of the Expansion of the Inca State: Between Historical and Radiocarbon Chronologies
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 The Challenge of the “Historical Chronology” of the Inca Empire
		3.2.1 The Limitations of the Chronological Interpretation of Historical Sources
		3.2.2 The Question of the Personal Name Among the Incas
		3.2.3 The “Dynastic Lists” of the Inca Rulers
	3.3 New Approach: Chronology of Inca State Based on Radiocarbon Method?
		3.3.1 Radiocarbon Dating Methods
		3.3.2 Calibration Curve
		3.3.3 Phases of the Expansion of the Inca State According to Radiocarbon Dating: Advances and Limitations of the Method
		3.3.4 Back to Historical Sources and the Case of the Inca Occupation of the Chincha Valley
	3.4 The Advance of the Inca State in the Cordillera de Vilcabamba and the Chronology of the Construction of Machu Picchu
		3.4.1 The Chronology of the Inca Settlements in Vilcabamba
		3.4.2 Pre-Inca and Inca Settlement of the Lower Urubamba Valley: A Historical Chronological Overview
		3.4.3 Radiocarbon Approach to the Chronology of the Construction Phases of the Llaqta of Machu Picchu and Some of Its Satellite Sites
	3.5 Conclusions
	Appendix 1
	Appendix 2
	Appendix 3
	Appendix 4
	Appendix 5
	Appendix 6
	References
4 Machu Picchu in Context: The Inca Building Culture
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Inca Building Culture
	4.3 Stones, Quarries and Quarrying Activities.
	4.4 Transporting
	4.5 Cutting, Dressing and Fitting
	4.6 Masonry
	4.7 Conclusions
	References
5 Astronomical Observations at Machu Picchu: Facts, Hypothesis and Wishful Thinking
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Methodology
	5.3 The Torreón or the Temple of the Sun
		5.3.1 The Plan of the Torreón and Its Orientation Towards True North and the Horizon
		5.3.2 The Torreón as Astronomical Observatory—Summary of Existing Hypotheses
		5.3.3 Conclusions
	5.4 Intihuatana as Astronomical Device—Summary of Existing Hypotheses
	5.5 Sala de los Morteros (the Room of the Mortars)
		5.5.1 Introduction
		5.5.2 The Current State of Cuarto de los Morteros and the Sala de los Morteros
		5.5.3 The Plan of the Sala de los Morteros and Its Orientation Towards True North
		5.5.4 The Sala de los Morteros as an Astronomical Observatory: Existing Hypothesis and Its Verification
		5.5.5 Conclusions
	5.6 The Temple of the Condor
	5.7 The Intimachay Cave
	5.8 Llactapata
	5.9 River Intihuatana
	5.10 El Mirador de Inkaraqay
	5.11 General Conclusions
		5.11.1 Results
		5.11.2 Some Comparative Cases
		5.11.3 About the Function of Intimachay and the Mirador de Inkaraqay
	References
Part II Prospecting Machu Picchu and Urubamba Valley. New Results from Earth Observations Sciences and Technologies
6 Open Big Earth Observation Data and Artificial Intelligence for the Study and Preservation of UNESCO Natural and Cultural Heritage: The Case of Machu Picchu
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Methodology
		6.2.1 Automatic Identification, Perimeter, and Evaluation of Wildfires Using Satellite Data, Machine Learning (ML), and Google Earth Engine GEE
		6.2.2 Analysis of Large Multi-temporal and Spatial Landsat Datasets for the Semi-automatic Analysis of Vegetation Changes in the Forested Area
	6.3 Result
	6.4 Conclusion
	References
7 New Results from Archaeogeophysical Investigations in Machu Picchu
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Methodology
		7.2.1 Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
		7.2.2 Magnetometric Measurements (GM)
		7.2.3 Resistivity Method (ERT)
	7.3 Context, Study Area, and Aims
	7.4 Results
		7.4.1 Intihuatana
		7.4.2 Hurin Sectors A, B, and C
	7.5 Conclusions
	References
8 Possibilities of Using LiDAR Systems in Architectural and Archaeological Research in the National Archaeological Park of Machu Picchu
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 LiDAR Technology in Short
	8.3 LiDAR 3D Point Clouds Processing for Archaeological Purposes
	8.4 LiDAR in the Machu Picchu Archaeological Park
		8.4.1 Helicopter-Based Machu Picchu LiDAR Survey
		8.4.2 UAV-Based Machu Picchu LiDAR Survey
	8.5 Assessment of LiDAR Use for the Machu Picchu Archaeological Park Survey
		8.5.1 Helicopter-Based LiDAR Survey
		8.5.2 UAV-Based LiDAR Survey
		8.5.3 Helicopter-Based Versus UAV-Based LiDAR Survey in the Conditions of Machu Picchu Park
	8.6 Conclusions and Proposed Strategy for the Continuation of the Machu Picchu Park ALS Survey
	Bibliography
9 In a Search for Standards in Inca Measuring System
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Metrological Study on Llaqta Machupicchu Architecture and Some Related Sites
		9.2.1 Methodology and Methods
		9.2.2 Comparative Studies
	9.3 Results
		9.3.1 Llaqta Machupicchu
		9.3.2 Chachabamba
		9.3.3 El Fuerte De Samaipata
		9.3.4 Coricancha Temple
		9.3.5 Summary of results
	9.4 Discussion
	9.5 Conclusions and Future Works
	9.6 Epilogue
	References
10 Research at the Chachabamba Archaeological Monument
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Sectorization
	10.3 Background
	10.4 Archaeological Research in the Seasons 2016 and 2017
	10.5 Conclusion
	Bibliography
Part III New Results from Archaeological and Historical Investigations
11 Machu Picchu: Interdisciplinary Research
	11.1 Present Sectorization
		11.1.1 Zone I (Agricultural)
		11.1.2 Zone II (Urban)
		11.1.3 Zone III (Eastern Andenes-Terraces)
		11.1.4 Zone IV (Manuel Chávez Ballón Site Museum, MSMCB)
		11.1.5 Zone V (Machupicchu Mountain)
		11.1.6 Zone VI (Waynapicchu Mountain)
	11.2 Research in the 2017 Season
		11.2.1 Excavations in the llaqta of Machupicchu
		11.2.2 Excavations at the Mandor Archaeological Monument
		11.2.3 The Inhabitants of Machupicchu
		11.2.4 Archeobotanic Investigations
		11.2.5 Inka Bridges Over the Vilcanota River in the SHM-PANM
		11.2.6 Roads That Articulate with the llaqta of Machupicchu
	11.3 Conclusions
	Bibliography
12 The Phaqcha from Chachabamba
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Planning and Orientation
	12.3 Archaeological Investigations of the Water System
	12.4 The Function of the Site via an Analysis of the Water System
	12.5 Discussion
	12.6 Conclusions
	References
13 High Mountain Underwater Archaeology: Research in the Lakes at the Foot of Salkantay Mountain
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2  Salkantay in Ethnohistoric Sources
	13.3 Fluctuation of Glaciers
	13.4 The Lakes of the Salkantay Massif
	13.5 Research Methodology
	13.6 Underwater Exploration in the Andes: History, Achievements and Challenges
	13.7 Underwater Prospecting
	13.8 Summary of Research Results
	13.9 Preliminary Conclusions
	Appendix
	References
14 Quillcas in the Historic Sanctuary-National Archaeological Park of Machu Picchu: A New Line of Evidence for the Earliest Occupancy of the Middle Vilcanota Basin
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Background
	14.3 The Quilcas of Isla Chico in the SHM-PANM
	14.4 The Quilcas of Marcavalle
	14.5 The New Evidence and the Quilcas Sequence of the SHM-PANM
	14.6 Discussion
	14.7 Conclusions
	References
15 Ethnohistorical Documents of Machu Picchu National Archaeological Park
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 The Organization of Space in the Sixteenth to Nineteenth Centuries: Encomienda of Piccho, Town of Picchu, Asiento of Vaynapicchu, Guaynapicchu and Ancient Town of the Ynga Called Guaynapicchu
		15.2.1 Encomienda of Piccho and Amaybamba
		15.2.2 The Foundation of the City of San Francisco de Vitoria de Vilcabamba and Land Distribution
		15.2.3 Demarcation of the Land in Guaynapiccho, Pitupuquio
		15.2.4 Demarcation of Land of Hacienda De Sillque and Land of the Natives in Vilcabamba
		15.2.5 The Lands of the Right and Left Bank of the Valley Floor of the Vilcanota River
	15.3 Land Grabs Between 1849 and 1944: Machu Picchu National Heritage of the Peruvian State
		15.3.1 Don Ramon Nadal, His Descendants, and the Sillque Hacienda
		15.3.2 Don Mariano Ignacio Ferro and the Abril Vizcarra Family
	15.4 Peruvian State Regulation, Integration of Spaces, Cultural Heritage Protection Between 1822 and 1929
		15.4.1 Construction of Camino Nuevo Piri-Santa Ana, by Engineer Herman Gohring
		15.4.2 Exploitation of Wood and the Huaca del Inca Company. Augusto Rodolfo Berns
		15.4.3 The Decreto Supremo of April 27, 1893 Which Declared All the Ancient Buildings, Prior to the Conquest, National Monuments (Period of Cultural Management 1893–1929)
	15.5 Conclusions
	References
16 Proof of Concept: Chemical Studies of the Biodeterioration of Ancient Structures in Machu Picchu
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Experimental
		16.2.1 Samples
		16.2.2 Instrumentation
	16.3 Results and Discussion
		16.3.1 Lichen Identification
		16.3.2 Elemental Content
	16.4 Conclusions
	References
17 In a Search for Inca Construction Process Logistics. Case Studies of Four Structures from the Llaqta Machu Picchu
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Case Studies
		17.2.1 The Intimachay Cave
		17.2.2 El Mirador de Inkaraqay
		17.2.3 The Enclosure Wall Between Agricultural and Domestic Areas
		17.2.4 The Sala de los Morteros
	17.3 Conclusions and Future Works
	References