Linking Indigenous Communities with Regional Development

Preface
Acknowledgements
Abbreviations and acronyms
Executive summary
	Recommendations
		1. Improve Indigenous statistics and data governance
		2. Create an enabling environment for Indigenous entrepreneurship and small business development at the local and regional levels
		3. Improve the Indigenous land tenure system to facilitate opportunities for economic development
		4. Adapt policies and governance to implement a place-based approach to economic development that improves policy coherence and empowers Indigenous communities
Assessment and recommendations
	Assessment 1: Better Indigenous statistics and data governance provide the basis for more informed decisions about development and support self-determination
		Inclusion of Indigenous peoples in data governance will enable better data that incorporateS their values and perspectives
	Recommendation 1: Improve Indigenous statistics and data governance
	Assessment 2: A place-based approach that promotes Indigenous entrepreneurship and small business development is key to mobilising assets and addressing exclusion and inequalities
		Indigenous entrepreneurship can unlock own-source revenues and support businesses that respect and incorporate traditional knowledge and values
		Geography shapes the resources and markets available to Indigenous entrepreneurs and, across different types of rural regions, Indigenous peoples are exploiting business opportunities in the traded and non-traded sectors
		A place-based approach to development can help create an enabling environment for entrepreneurship – this needs to be Indigenous-led with governments playing a supportive and facilitating role
	Recommendation 2: Create an enabling environment for Indigenous entrepreneurship and small business development at the local and regional levels
	Assessment 3: The system of land tenure and the availability of mechanisms and instruments to mobilise development opportunities shape the limits and possibilities of economic development for Indigenous peoples
		Land rights and security of tenure are a foundation for economic development and different models of Indigenous land management exist across countries
		There are a number of different legal and governance instruments that are available to facilitate economic development opportunities on Indigenous lands
		Mechanisms to have a say in project assessment and to negotiate with project proponents can lead to better development outcomes
	Recommendation 3: Improve the Indigenous land tenure system to facilitate opportunities for economic development
	Assessment 4: Strengthening multi-level governance and partnerships with Indigenous peoples is needed to implement a place-based approach
		A tradition of spatially blind policy settings for Indigenous development has generated governance challenges such as lack of coherence and capacity to implement a place-based approach
		Governments and Indigenous communities have made significant progress in addressing these four governance challenges and a range of good practices and lessons in relation to each of them have been identified
	Recommendation 4: Adapt policies and governance to implement a place-based approach to economic development that improves policy coherence and empowers Indigenous communities
Note on methodology
	Objective of this note
	Formation and initial scoping
	Dialogue and engagement with Indigenous peoples and governments
	Developing the analytical framework
	Collecting and analysing the data
		Surveys and desktop data collection
		OECD fieldwork to Indigenous communities
		OECD workshops
		Peer review
		Data analysis
	Key learnings and refining the analytical framework
	Outcomes
	Notes
	References
Chapter 1.  Indigenous economic development and well-being: Statistics and data governance
	Introduction
	Definitions and overview
		International definition of Indigenous peoples
		Statistical frameworks used in OECD countries
	The geographic distribution of Indigenous people in OECD regions
		National distribution
		Subnational distribution of Indigenous peoples: The importance of rural areas
			Territorial Level 2 (TL2) distribution
				Territorial Level 3 (TL3) distribution
	Indigenous well-being and development
		Frameworks to measure well-being
		National well-being outcomes
			Material conditions
			Income and wealth
			Housing
				Employment rate
			Unemployment
			Quality of life
			Health status
				Education
				Summary
		Subnational well-being outcomes
			Selection of regions
				Material conditions
				Income
				New Zealand
				United States
				Employment rate
				Unemployment
				Quality of life
				Health status
				Education and skills
				Current stage of Indigenous well-being and how it compares with non-Indigenous peoples
	Understanding how regional characteristics shape well-being outcomes in rural and urban regions
		The impact of regional characteristics on labour market outcomes
			Labour force participation rates across small regions
		Predominantly rural regions
		Predominantly urban regions
		Exploring factors associated with labour force outcomes
		Summary
	Indigenous data governance
		Addressing gaps in data collected by governments
		Incorporating Indigenous values and perspectives into measuring economic development and well-being
			Material conditions
				Income
				Quality of life
				Social connections and subjective well-being
				Civic participation and governance
				Environmental quality
				Accessibility to services
				Adapting well-being frameworks for Indigenous peoples
		Empowering Indigenous communities to collect and use data to support local decision-making
	Notes
	References
		Annex 1.A. Selected TL2 and TL3 regions
		Annex 1.B. Labour market outcomes for Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples, 2011
		Annex 1.C. Educational attainment rate for Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples, 2011
Chapter 2.  Promoting Indigenous entrepreneurship and small business development in partnership with Indigenous communities
	Introduction
	Indigenous businesses: Entrepreneurship and innovation
		Indigenous entrepreneurship: Purpose, values and definitions
			Measurement issues
		Indigenous business innovation
		Structure and trends
	Indigenous entrepreneurship and small businesses in a rural context
		Place-based approach to Indigenous economic development
		Growth dynamics of rural economies
			Productivity growth in rural areas – The importance of the tradeable sector and proximity to cities
		Indigenous communities across different types of rural regions
			Indigenous peoples in low-density economies
			Typology to understand development opportunities for Indigenous communities in rural areas
	Competitive advantages and opportunities
		Profile of the Indigenous business, by sector
		Food and agriculture
		Mining and extractive industries
		Land management and environmental services
		Tourism
		Culture and traditional knowledge
		Renewable energy
			The Indigenous business sector in a rural context
	Place-based approach to Indigenous business development
		Remote Indigenous communities with abundant natural resources and amenities
		Remote Indigenous communities where natural resources and amenities are limited or absent
		Indigenous communities close to cities abundant with natural resources and amenities
		Indigenous communities close to cities where natural resources and amenities are limited or absent
		Lessons and success factors
	Policies to promote Indigenous entrepreneurship and small business development in a rural context
		Increasing access to finance
			Defining the problem
			Options for accessing financial capital
			Government provision of tailored financial instruments for Indigenous businesses
			Government support for Indigenous micro-finance initiatives
			Financial instruments for established and growing Indigenous businesses
			Local Indigenous financial institutions
			Leveraging private sector finance
			Key lessons and good practices
		Building business capabilities
			Defining the problem
			Strategic options to address these problems
			Tailoring initiatives for Indigenous entrepreneurs
			Building financial literacy
			Targeted business development programmes
			Key lessons and good practices
		Preferential procurement policies
			Defining the problem
			Preferential procurement policies for Indigenous businesses
			Preferential procurement programmes
			Private sector procurement
			Challenges and complementary support strategies for Indigenous businesses
			Key lessons and good practices
	References
Chapter 3.  Indigenous lands: Recognition, management and development
	Introduction
		Scope and definitions
		Chapter structure
	Traditional lands and rights frameworks
		What are Indigenous lands
		Why land matters
		Framework for Indigenous Rights at an international level
			Self-determination and land rights
			Procedural rights: Participation, consultation and redress
			Ratification and adhesion status
		Land rights: Classification and comparison between countries
			Defining property rights
			Comparison of land rights across countries
				United States
				Canada
				New Zealand
				Australia
				Sweden
				Summary
		Legal recognition of land rights
		Allocation of land rights
			Land registration
			Mapping land
			Demarcation and land titling
		Protection of land rights
	Instruments to mobilise the economic development potential of Indigenous lands
		Indigenous land management models
			Typology of land management
			Land management tools
		Indigenous land use planning
			Land use planning in a self-governance framework
			Inclusion in regional and municipal land use planning
		Conservation and natural resource management
			Joint management of natural resources
			Instruments to include Indigenous peoples in the management of nature conservation areas
				Self-governing conservation areas
				Joint management of conservation areas
				Challenges and lessons
		Regulation of fishing, hunting and sub-surface resources
			Country frameworks
			Size and value of the resource
			Licensing authority
			Managing competing resource users
			Allocation of resource rights
		Land leasing
			Enhancing access to credit
			Leasing to tribe members
			Leasing out to external actors
		Land acquisition
			Mechanisms to acquire land
		Consolidation and co-ordination of Indigenous land ownership
			Land fractionation in the United States
			Land fragmentation in New Zealand
	Framework for project development with Indigenous peoples
		Project elaboration
		Environmental licensing
			Impact assessment and mitigation measures
			Making sense of consultation
			Time and cost of consultation
		Negotiation of benefit-sharing agreements
			Rules and provisions
			Two models of benefit-sharing agreements: Australia and Canada
			Getting ready: Community deliberation and negotiation protocol
			Defining benefits
			Making sure the agreement is implemented
			Conditions for a fairer negotiation process
	Notes
	References
Chapter 4.  Towards a place-based approach to Indigenous economic development
	Introduction
	Framework for assessing a place-based approach to Indigenous economic development
		Scope and context
		Implementing a place-based approach to Indigenous economic development
		Framework for assessing the governance of Indigenous economic development
	Facilitating policy coherence
		National policy frameworks for Indigenous economic development
			New Zealand’s He kai kei aku ringa – the Crown Māori Economic Growth Partnership – delivers well on all four aspects
				Australia is targeting Indigenous economic development through three strategies – shifting towards more Indigenous involvement and localised approaches
				Countries that do not have national strategies
		Considerations for devising national policy frameworks for Indigenous economic development
			Encouraging alignment of objectives across levels of government and sectors and encouraging co-operation to make use of synergies
			Avoiding a one-size-fits-all approach and incentivising policies that can easily be adjusted to local needs, characteristics and aspirations
			Respect and be mindful of history and the fact that Indigenous economic development might differ from non-Indigenous development objectives
			Define short-, medium- and long-term measurable outcomes to enable learning and feedback
		Ensure inclusion in mainstream regional and rural development planning
			Lack of integration due to institutional separation
			Jurisdictional gaps can create a lack of inclusion
		Financing for Indigenous peoples needs to be tailored and predictable
	Enhancing vertical and horizontal co-ordination
		Legal frameworks fundamentally define Indigenous identity, rights and policy actions
			National and state governments share responsibility for relationships with Aboriginal Australians – but there is no clear division of competencies
			Canada’s framework legislation on Indigenous peoples is evolving – Redefining relationships with government
			Sámi legislation in Sweden focuses on minority rights and reindeer herding – this, in turn, limits the purview of public policies for the Sámi
			New Zealand are putting the Treaty of Waitangi/Te Titiri o Waitangi at the centre of all relations with Māori – but are vulnerable to political discretion
			In the United States, Indigenous relations are with the national government and state governments simultaneously
		Horizontal co-ordination gaps at the national level
			Centralised institutional setups
			Distributed institutional setups
			Mixing the two approaches
		Co-ordination gaps between levels of government
			Information gaps with subnational governments
			Administrative gaps
			Capacity gaps
		Addressing horizontal and vertical co-ordination gaps
			Institutional mapping to clarify responsibilities and roles of actors involved
			Creating agencies responsible for whole-of-government and portfolio co-ordination
			Permanent and project-based co-ordinating bodies between levels of government and different sectors
			Building brokering capacities of regional offices
			Contracts and agreements to reach effective size
	Strengthening relationships through participation in decision-making
		Importance of participation in decision-making
		Limited representation, low levels of participation and inconsistent legal frameworks
			Protocols for engaging with Indigenous peoples
		Programmes to build community capacity
		Cultural competence
	Empowering Indigenous organisations to shape and lead economic development strategies
		Strengthening capabilities for self-governance
			The shift toward self-governance
			Common capability gaps
			The capabilities needed for good governance
		Building scale to strengthen Indigenous governance capacities
			Ecosystems for strengthening local governance
				Regional advisory services
				Innovation hubs
				Co-development institutions
				Advocacy organisations
			Community brokers that add governance capacity
			Regional alliances between Indigenous communities
	References
		Annex 4.A. Key policy documents