Linguistic Meaning

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Half Title......Page 6
Original Title Page......Page 8
Original Copyright Page......Page 9
Dedication......Page 11
Table of Contents......Page 12
Figures and Tables......Page 22
Preface......Page 24
Acknowledgments......Page 26
The principal symbols and conventions......Page 27
1.1 Introduction......Page 30
1.2.1 S and H as hypothetical men-in-the-street......Page 31
1.2.2 The importance of being reasonable......Page 32
1.2.3.1 Paying attention to H’s 'face'......Page 39
1.2.3.2 Attending to H’s positive face......Page 42
1.2.3.3 Attending to H’s negative face......Page 50
1.2.4 The co-operative principle......Page 63
1.3.1 The three categories of context......Page 65
1.3.2 Setting......Page 66
1.3.3 The world spoken of, W......Page 70
1.3.4 Textual environment......Page 73
1.3.5 Context - a summary......Page 82
1.4.2 Utterances and sentences, and other etic and emic categories......Page 84
1.4.3 The prosody, Φ......Page 87
1.5.1 The compositionality of meaning......Page 90
1.5.2 Word, lexeme, and morpheme......Page 91
1.5.3 The lexicon......Page 93
1.5.4 Syntax and sentence meaning......Page 95
1.6.1 Sense and denotation......Page 96
1.6.2 More about the notion of sense......Page 99
1.6.3 The meaning of S’s speech act......Page 101
2.1 Introduction......Page 104
2.2 Meaning as ostension......Page 105
2.3 Meaning as use......Page 106
2.4 Meaning as conditions on truth......Page 108
2.5 Meaning as speaker’s stimulus and hearer’s response......Page 111
2.6 Meanings as concepts: the ideational theory of meaning......Page 115
2.7 Meanings as abstract objects: a Platonist conception of meaning......Page 117
2.8 The naturalist hypothesis......Page 120
2.9.1 The relationship between the form of an expression, its sense, and its denotatum......Page 128
2.9.3 Perceiving......Page 132
2.9.4 What makes a cup a cup (rather than a mug)?......Page 136
2.9.5 Prototypical denotata and fuzzy sets......Page 138
2.9.6 The sense and denotation of basic colour terms......Page 140
2.9.7 The semantics of noun classifiers......Page 150
2.9.8 Number registration in English and the perceived characteristics of noun phrase denotata......Page 153
2.9.9 The Aristotelian tradition in grammatical analysis......Page 165
2.9.10 Summary of the evidence that sense reflects the perceived characteristics of the concrete denotatum......Page 166
2.10 What meaning is, and the linking of sense and denotation......Page 168
3.1 Introduction......Page 169
3.2.2 Anomaly......Page 170
3.2.3 Indeterminability......Page 172
3.2.4 Contradiction......Page 174
3.3.1 Ambiguity, polysemy, and homonymy......Page 175
3.3.2 Polysemy......Page 176
3.3.3 Homonymy......Page 179
3.3.4 Definitions for polysemy and homonymy......Page 184
3.4.1 Introduction......Page 185
3.4.2 The notion of truth in language......Page 187
3.4.3 Predictions and probabie-truth values......Page 190
3.4.5 Compliance values......Page 191
3.4.7 Authority values......Page 192
3.5.1 Introduction......Page 193
3.5.2 Componential analysis......Page 194
3.5.3 Semantic components as semantic predicates......Page 200
3.6.1 Synonymy as symmetrical semantic implication between propositions......Page 203
3.6.3 Converse predicates......Page 206
3.6.4 Cross-varietal synonymies......Page 207
3.7 Asymmetric semantic implication and the relation of hyponymy......Page 208
3.8 Antonymy and hyponymy......Page 210
3.9 Semantic implication, conversational implicature, and conventional implicature......Page 212
3.10 Tautology......Page 217
3.11.1 Introduction......Page 220
3.11.2 Osgood’s semantic differential: a measurement of connotative meaning......Page 223
3.12.1 Introduction......Page 232
3.12.2 Meaning change as a consequence of a change in the nature or conception of the phenomenon denoted by a lexicon item......Page 233
3.12.3 Extension in the denotational scope of a lexeme......Page 234
3.12.4 Narrowing in the denotational scope of a lexeme......Page 236
3.12.6 Meaning transfer – the shift of a label from one phenomenon to another contextually associated one......Page 238
3.12.7 Meaning change – a summary......Page 239
3.13 Meaningful properties and meaning relations – a summary......Page 240
4.1 Introduction......Page 243
4.2 The meanings of words that consist of a lexeme and inflexional morphemes......Page 244
4.3.1 Lexical derivation......Page 245
4.3.2 Zero derivation......Page 246
4.3.3 Lexemes derived by prefixing and suffixing derivational morphemes......Page 252
4.4 Compounds......Page 254
4.5 Phrasal verbs......Page 262
4.6 Idioms......Page 265
4.7.2 Clipping......Page 268
4.7.4 Blends......Page 269
4.7.5 Acronyms and abbreviations......Page 270
4.7.6 The extension of proper names......Page 271
4.7.7 In conclusion......Page 272
4.8 Borrowed words......Page 273
4.9.1 Folk etymology......Page 274
4.9.2 Onomatopoeia......Page 276
4.9.3 Phonesthesia......Page 277
4.9.4 Reduplication......Page 279
4.9.5 Rhyming slang......Page 280
4.10 The composition of scientific names......Page 281
4.11 The set of lexicon items......Page 283
4.12.1 The ordering of items in the lexicon, and the ordering of information in a lexicon entry......Page 285
4.12.2 Formal presentation......Page 286
4.12.3 Syntactic information in the lexicon entry......Page 291
4.12.4 Use of the lexicon in the interpretation of new coinings......Page 293
4.12.5 The metalanguage for semantic definitions......Page 294
4.12.6 Semantic information in the lexicon entry......Page 299
4.12.7 Conclusions about form and presentation in the lexicon......Page 302
5.2 Katzian semantics......Page 303
5.2.1 The importance of Katz's contribution to linguistic semantics......Page 304
5.2.2 ‘The structure of a semantic theory’ (1963)......Page 306
5.2.3 The semantic interpretation of underlying phrase markers......Page 317
5.2.4 Problems with selection restrictions......Page 322
5.2.4.1 The problem of lexical insertion in a standard theory grammar......Page 324
5.2.4.2 Problems with semantic selection restrictions......Page 332
5.2.4.3 Summary remarks on selection restrictions......Page 334
5.2.5.1 Semantic markers and distinguishers......Page 335
5.2.5.2 Semantic markers as concepts and as abstract objects......Page 344
5.2.5.3 The form and structure of semantic markers......Page 345
5.2.5.4 Katz’s metalanguage and the semantics of time, tense, and aspect......Page 356
5.2.5.5 Interpreting Katz’s lexicon entry for the transitive verb open......Page 365
5.2.6 The projection rule......Page 371
5.2.8 A final assessment of Katz’s theory as a theory of ∑’s meaning......Page 380
5.3.1 Introduction......Page 382
5.3.2 Weinreich on semantics......Page 384
5.3.3 Generative semantics......Page 392
5.3.3.1 The notion of hypothetical verbs from Lakoff 1965/1970......Page 394
5.3.3.2 Jeffrey Gruber’s Studies in Lexical Relations 1965/1970/1976......Page 400
5.3.3.3 James D. McCawley rejects the distinction between syntax and semantics......Page 402
5.3.3.4 An evaluation of generative semantics as a theory of sentence meaning......Page 406
5.3.4 Schemes for marking participant roles in a grammar......Page 412
5.3.5 Last words on the alternatives to Katzian semantics......Page 414
5.4 Inferential semantics and the relationship between the meaning of a sentence and the meanings of the lexicon items it contains......Page 415
Notes to Volume 1......Page 421
References......Page 443
Cover......Page 466
Half Title......Page 467
Title Page......Page 469
Copyright Page......Page 470
Table of Contents......Page 471
Figures......Page 475
The principal symbols and conventions......Page 476
6.1 Introduction......Page 479
6.2 The auditory analysis-by-synthesis of prosodic categories......Page 480
6.3.1 What stress is......Page 485
6.3.2 The notion of normal stress placement and the function of stress......Page 486
6.4.1 Disjuncture in the delivery of planned texts and disjuncture in spontaneous speech......Page 503
6.4.2 The functions of disjuncture in the delivery of planned texts......Page 504
6.4.3 Disjuncture in spontaneous speech......Page 508
6.5.1 Introduction......Page 512
6.5.2 The use of keys and tones in the intonation of English......Page 514
6.5.3 The high rise terminal in Australian English declaratives......Page 526
6.6 Concluding remarks on the meaning of prosody (in English)......Page 534
7.1 Introduction......Page 537
7.2 Focus......Page 538
7.3 Scope relations......Page 549
7.4 Light-heavy alternation as a cognitive processing strategy......Page 559
7.5 FC: the first constituent in a clause or utterance......Page 560
7.6 EC: the end constituent in a clause or utterance......Page 574
7.7 Sentence subjects, left conjuncts, and the familiarity and personal hierarchies......Page 580
7.8 Constituent order and NP roles......Page 585
7.9 Topics......Page 588
7.11.1 Definiticity in English NPs......Page 597
7.11.2 Generic NPs (in English)......Page 612
7.11.3 Referentiality......Page 620
7.12 Summary discussion on informational aspects of the utterance......Page 638
8.1 What is a speech act?......Page 642
8.2.1 Performative verbs......Page 645
8.2.2 The person(s) responsible for the illocution......Page 646
8.2.4 Tense and aspect in the performative clause......Page 647
8.2.5 Negative performatives......Page 648
8.2.6 Modal auxiliaries with performatives......Page 650
8.2.7 Performatives in the emphatic indicative and other moods......Page 651
8.2.8 Necessary and sufficient conditions on the form of explicit performatives......Page 652
8.3.1 Illocution......Page 653
8.3.2 Perlocutions......Page 654
8.3.3 Utterance acts......Page 655
8.3.4 Locutionary acts and denotational acts......Page 656
8.4 Austin’s felicity conditions on illocutionary acts......Page 659
8.5.1 Criteria for classification......Page 668
8.5.2.1 The definitional components of interpersonal illocutionary acts......Page 670
8.5.2.2 Definitions of constatives......Page 671
8.5.2.3 Definitions of predictives......Page 672
8.5.2.4 Definitions of commissives......Page 673
8.5.2.5 Definitions of acknowledgments......Page 675
8.5.2.7 Definitions of interpersonal authoritatives......Page 677
8.5.3.1 The defining characteristics of declaratory acts......Page 678
8.5.3.2 The definition of effectives......Page 679
8.5.3.3 The definition of verdictives......Page 680
8.5.4 Summary remarks on the taxonomy and definitions of illocutionary acts......Page 681
8.6.1 Preliminary remarks on indirect illocution......Page 682
8.6.2.1 Introduction......Page 683
8.6.2.2 The primary illocution of interrogative sentences......Page 685
8.6.2.3 The illocutions of imperative sentences......Page 702
8.6.2.4 Why explicit performatives describe indirect illocutions......Page 706
8.6.3 Summary remarks on primary and indirect illocution......Page 715
8.7 The illocutions of utterances containing more than one clause......Page 717
8.8 Co-operative clauses......Page 720
8.9 When there is more than one hearer......Page 724
8.10.2 The inferential theory of speech acts......Page 728
8.10.3 The performative analysis theory of speech acts......Page 730
8.10.4 Katz’s theory of propositional type......Page 744
8.10.5 Concluding remarks on the comparison of the three theories of speech acts......Page 758
Chapter 9 Epilogue: on linguistic meaning......Page 759
Notes to Volume 2......Page 777
References......Page 789
Index to Volumes 1 and 2......Page 811