Lignocellulosic Biomass Refining for Second Generation Biofuel Production

Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Editors
Contributors
Chapter 1 Physical and Physicochemical Pretreatment Methods for Lignocellulosic Biomass Conversion
	1.1 Introduction
		1.1.1 Lignocellulose
		1.1.2 Need for Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass
	1.2 Types of Pretreatments for Lignocellulosic Biomass
	1.3 Pretreatment Methods
		1.3.1 Physical Methods
			1.3.1.1 Extrusion
			1.3.1.2 Milling
			1.3.1.3 Microwave
			1.3.1.4 Ultrasound
			1.3.1.5 Torrefaction
			1.3.1.6 Pulsed Electric Field
			1.3.1.7 Chipping
			1.3.1.8 Briquetting
			1.3.1.9 Pelletization
		1.3.2 The Chemical Pretreatment Process
			1.3.2.1 Acid Pretreatment
			1.3.2.2 Ozonolysis
			1.3.2.3 Organosoly
			1.3.2.4 Ionic Liquids
			1.3.2.5 Natural Deep Eutectic Solvents
	1.4 Physiochemical Methods
		1.4.1 Steam Explosion
		1.4.2 Ammonia Fiber Expansion
		1.4.3 CO[sub(2)] Explosion
		1.4.4 SPORL Method
		1.4.5 WET Oxidation
		1.4.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Physicochemical Pretreatment Methods
		1.4.7 Recent Advancements in Physicochemical Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass
	1.5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 2 Biorefining Processes for Valorization of Lignocellulosic Biomass for Sustainable Production of Value-Added Products
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass
	2.3 Biorefinery Process
		2.3.1 Pretreatment Methods of LB
			2.3.1.1 Physical Methods
			2.3.1.2 Chemical Methods
			2.3.1.3 Physicochemical Methods
			2.3.1.4 Biological Methods
		2.3.2 Hydrolysis
		2.3.3 Fermentation Process
	2.4 Value-Added Products
		2.4.1 Citric Acid
		2.4.2 Succinic Acid
		2.4.3 Lactic Acid
		2.4.4 Hydroxymethylfurfural
		2.4.5 Levulinic Acid
		2.4.6 Sorbitol
		2.4.7 Xylitol
		2.4.8 Furfural
		2.4.9 Acetic Acid
		2.4.10 Lignin-Based Phenols/Polymers
		2.4.11 Bioplastics
	2.5 Challenges in the Commercialization of Lignocellulose Biorefinery
		2.5.1 Scale-Up Challenges
		2.5.2 Technical Challenges
		2.5.3 Economic Challenges
	2.6 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter 3 Inhibitors and Microbial Tolerance during Fermentation of Biofuel Production
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Breakdown of Cellulose and Production of Biofuel
	3.3 Inhibition and its Role in the Fermentation of Biofuel
	3.4 Type of Inhibitors
		3.4.1 Process Inhibitors (Derived From Pretreatment)
			3.4.1.1 Short-Chain Aliphatic Acids
			3.4.1.2 Phenolic Compounds
			3.4.1.3 Furan Aldehydes
			3.4.1.4 Ionic Liquids
		3.4.2 Inherent Inhibitors (Derived From Biofuel Fermentation)
			3.4.2.1 Alcohols
			3.4.2.2 Long-Chain Fatty Acids
			3.4.2.3 Alkanes/Alkenes
	3.5 Mechanism of Inhibition
	3.6 Microbial Tolerance
		3.6.1 Concept of Microbial Tolerance and its Role in Biofuel Production
		3.6.2 Mechanism and Strategies for Enhancing Microbial Tolerance
			3.6.2.1 Random Mutagenesis
			3.6.2.2 Adaptive Laboratory Evolution
			3.6.2.3 In Situ Detoxification
			3.6.2.4 Heat Shock Proteins
		3.6.2.5 Efflux Pumps
		3.6.2.6 Membrane Modifications
	3.7 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 4 The Role of Metabolic Engineering in the Development of 2G Biofuels (Both in Conversion and Fermentation)
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Metabolic Engineering for Biofuel Processes
		4.2.1 Bacterial Metabolic Engineering
		4.2.2 Molecular Biology in Bacterial Metabolic Engineering
		4.2.3 Importance and Significance of Bacterial Metabolic Engineering in Biomass Conversion
		4.2.4 Bioethanol Production Using Bioengineered Bacterial Strains
		4.2.5 Butanol Production Using Bioengineered Bacterial Strains
	4.3 Metabolic Engineering of Some Common Model Organisms
		4.3.1 Clostridium Cellulolyticum
		4.3.2 Klebsiella Pneumoniae
		4.3.3 Lactobacillus Casei
		4.3.4 Actinobacteria
	4.4 Fungal Metabolic Engineering
	4.5 Challenges in Scale-Up Fermentation
	4.6 Present Status and Future Prospects of Bacterial Metabolic Engineering
	4.7 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 5 Fermentation of Hydrolysate Derived From Lignocellulose Biomass Toward Biofuels Production
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Structural Organization of Lignocellulosic Biomass
	5.3 Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Feedstock
		5.3.1 Classification of Pretreatment
			5.3.1.1 Chemical Pretreatment
			5.3.1.2 Ozonolysis
			5.3.1.3 Organosolv
			5.3.1.4 Ionic Liquids
			5.3.1.5 Oxidative Delignification
			5.3.1.6 Physical Pretreatment
			5.3.1.7 Biological Pretreatment
			5.3.1.8 Physicochemical Pretreatment
	5.4 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
	5.5 Fermentation
		5.5.1 Fermentative Techniques
			5.5.1.1 Consolidated Bioprocessing Approach
			5.5.1.2 Separate Hydrolysis and Fermentation
			5.5.1.3 Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation
	5.6 Inhibition and Detoxification of Lignocellulosic Hydrolysates
		5.6.1 Inhibition of Lignocellulosic Hydrolysates
		5.6.2 Types of Inhibitors and their Inhibitory Effects
			5.6.2.1 Sugar-Derived Aldehydes
			5.6.2.2 Aromatic Compounds
			5.6.2.3 Short-Chain Organic Acids
	5.7 Detoxification of Inhibitors
		5.7.1 Physical Methods
		5.7.2 Chemical Methods
		5.7.3 Biological Methods
	5.8 Extraction of Biobutanol
		5.8.1 Immobilized and Cell Recycle Continuous Bioreactors
		5.8.2 Gas Stripping
		5.8.3 Pervaporation
		5.8.4 Liquid–Liquid Extraction
		5.8.5 Perstraction
		5.8.6 Reverse Osmosis
		5.8.7 Adsorption
	5.9 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	References
Chapter 6 Rector Configurations for Thermochemical Conversion of Lignocellulosic Biomass
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass Conversion Technologies
	6.3 Pyrolysis Reactor Configurations
		6.3.1 Fluidized Bed Reactor with Internal Gas Bubbling
		6.3.2 Circulating Fluidized Bed Reactor
		6.3.3 Auger Pyrolysis Reactor
		6.3.4 Vacuum Pyrolysis
		6.3.5 Ablative Pyrolysis Reactors
	6.4 Factors Influencing Pyrolysis Reactor Selection
	6.5 Gasification – Basic Terminologies and Concepts
		6.5.1 Steps Involved in the Gasification Process
	6.6 Reactors for Gasification Process
		6.6.1 Updraft Gasification Reactor
		6.6.2 Downdraft Gasification Reactor
		6.6.3 Bubbling Fluidized Bed Reactor
		6.6.4 Circulating Fluidized Bed Gasification Reactor
		6.6.5 Entrained Flow Gasification Reactor
	6.7 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 7 Advanced Pretreatment Process for Lignocellulosic Biomass
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Chemistry of Lignocellulose
		7.2.1 Structure of Lignocellulose
			7.2.1.1 Chemical Structure of Cellulose
			7.2.1.2 Chemical Structure of Hemicellulose
			7.2.1.3 Chemical Structure of Lignin
		7.2.2 Various Pretreatment Methods
			7.2.2.1 Physical Pretreatments
			7.2.2.2 Chemical Pretreatments
			7.2.2.3 Biological Pretreatment
			7.2.2.4 Physicochemical Pretreatment
		7.2.3 Advances in Pretreatment Technologies
		7.2.4 Ionic Liquids
			7.2.4.1 ILs in Biomass Conversion
			7.2.4.2 Dissolution of Biomass in ILs
		7.2.5 Deep Eutectic Solvents
			7.2.5.1 Deep Eutectic Solvents in Biomass Conversion
			7.2.5.2 Dissolution of Biomass in DESs
		7.2.6 Supercritical Fluids
			7.2.6.1 Supercritical Fluids in Biomass Conversion
			7.2.6.2 Supercritical Water
			7.2.6.3 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide
		7.2.7 Cosolvent
		7.2.8 Challenges in Energy Production From Lignocellulose
	References
Chapter 8 Ionic Liquids as Solvents for Separation of Biobutanol
	8.1 Introduction
		8.1.1 Biofuels and Biochemicals (Global Energy Scenarios)
		8.1.2 Biobutanol
		8.1.3 Comparison of Butanol Over Other Fuels
	8.2 Production Approaches for Butanol
		8.2.1 Chemical Synthesis
			8.2.1.1 Oxo Synthesis
			8.2.1.2 Reppe Synthesis
			8.2.1.3 Crotonaldehyde Hydrogenation
		8.2.2 Fermentation
			8.2.2.1 Acetone, Butanol and Ethanol (ABE) Fermentation
	8.3 Separation of Valuable Biochemicals
		8.3.1 Biobutanol Separation
		8.3.2 Adsorption
		8.3.3 Gas Stripping
		8.3.4 Pervaporation
		8.3.5 Liquid-Liquid Extraction
	8.4 Green Methods for the Separation of Butanol
		8.4.1 Ionic Liquids: A Brief History
		8.4.2 Applications of Ionic Liquids
			8.4.2.1 Cellulose Processing
			8.4.2.2 Hydrogenation Reaction
			8.4.2.3 Biobutanol Separation
	8.5 Possible Hypothetical Mechanism for Biobutanol Separation Using Ionic Liquids
	8.6 Commercial Aspect
	8.7 Discussion and Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
Chapter 9 Intensification in Bioethanol Production and Separation
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Bioethanol
	9.3 Classification of Bioethanol
		9.3.1 First-Generation Bioethanol
		9.3.2 Second-Generation Bioethanol
		9.3.3 Third-Generation Bioethanol
	9.4 Process Intensification
		9.4.1 Principles of Process Intensification
		9.4.2 Process Intensification for Bioethanol Production
	9.5 Biomass Pretreatment Alternatives
		9.5.1 Physical Treatment Methods
			9.5.1.1 Mechanical Comminution
			9.5.1.2 Extrusion
			9.5.1.3 Microwave Irradiation (Dielectric Heating)
			9.5.1.4 Ultrasonication
			9.5.1.5 Electron Beam Irradiation
		9.5.2 Physicochemical Pretreatment
			9.5.2.1 Alkali Pretreatment
			9.5.2.2 Alkaline Peroxide Pretreatment
			9.5.2.3 Acid Pretreatment
			9.5.2.4 Organosolv Pretreatment
			9.5.2.5 Steam Explosion Pretreatment
			9.5.2.6 Wet Oxidation
			9.5.2.7 Ammonia Fiber Explosion Method
			9.5.2.8 CO[sub(2)] Explosion (Supercritical CO[sub(2)])
			9.5.2.9 SO[sub(2)] Explosion
			9.5.2.10 Ionic Liquids
		9.5.3 Biological Pretreatment
	9.6 Biomass Hydrolysis or Saccharification
		9.6.1 Acid Hydrolysis
		9.6.2 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
	9.7 Fermentation
	9.8 Integration of Hydrolysis and Fermentation
		9.8.1 Separate Hydrolysis and Fermentation
		9.8.2 Separate Hydrolysis and Co-Fermentation
		9.8.3 Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation
		9.8.4 Simultaneous Saccharification and Co-Fermentation
		9.8.5 Consolidated Bioprocessing
	9.9 Integration of Production and Separation
		9.9.1 Conventional Distillation
		9.9.2 High-Temperature Fermentation with Vacuum Distillation
		9.9.3 Azeotropic Distillation
		9.9.4 Extractive Distillation
		9.9.5 Pressure-Swing Distillation
		9.9.6 Reactive Distillation
		9.9.7 Adsorption
		9.9.8 Adsorption–Distillation
		9.9.9 Molecular Sieve Adsorption Distillation
		9.9.10 Reverse Osmosis
		9.9.11 Pervaporation
		9.9.12 Fermentation–Pervaporation
		9.9.13 Distillation–Pervaporation
		9.9.14 Membrane Liquid Extraction
		9.9.15 Vapor Permeation
		9.9.16 Distillation–Membrane Separation
		9.9.17 Mechanical Vapor–Recompression Distillation with Membrane Vapor Permeation
		9.9.18 Liquid–Liquid Extraction
		9.9.19 Supercritical Approach
		9.9.20 Salt Separations
	9.10 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 10 Pervaporation as a Promising Approach for Recovery of Bioethanol
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Bioethanol
		10.2.1 Characteristics of Bioethanol (Pejó, 2020)
		10.2.2 Advantages of Bioethanol (Hilmioglu, 2009)
		10.2.3 Disadvantages of Bioethanol (Hilmioglu, 2009)
	10.3 Production of Bioethanol
		10.3.1 Pathways and Microorganisms for Bioethanol
		10.3.2 Mode for Fermentation
		10.3.3 Typical Production Process
	10.4 Downstream Processing for Bioethanol Production
		10.4.1 Membrane Filtration
		10.4.2 Distillation
		10.4.3 Azeotropic Distillation
		10.4.4 Extractive Distillation
		10.4.5 Membrane Distillation
		10.4.6 Pervaporation
		10.4.7 Gas Stripping
		10.4.8 Vacuum Fermentation
		10.4.9 Adsorption
		10.4.10 Liquid–Liquid Extraction
		10.4.11 Reverse Osmosis
		10.4.12 Vapor Permeation
		10.4.13 Comparison of Separation Processes
	10.5 Pervaporation for Bioethanol Production
		10.5.1 Basics of Pervaporation
		10.5.2 Application
		10.5.3 Ethanol Mass Transfer in Pervaporation
		10.5.4 Ethanol Mass Transport Model for Pervaporation
			10.5.4.1 Solution–Diffusion Model
			10.5.4.2 Pore Flow Model
		10.5.5 Pervaporation Configuration
		10.5.6 Pervaporation Membrane for Bioethanol Separation
			10.5.6.1 Polymeric Membrane
			10.5.6.2 Inorganic Membrane
			10.5.6.3 Mixed Matrix Membranes
		10.5.7 Pervaporation as a Green Process
		10.5.8 Advantages of Pervaporation
		10.5.9 Disadvantages of Pervaporation
		10.5.10 Mode of Operation
		10.5.11 Membrane Modules
	10.6 Fermentation with Pervaporation for Bioethanol Production
		10.6.1 Fermentation–Pervaporation
		10.6.2 Ethanol Fermentation Coupled with Pervaporation
		10.6.3 Ethanol Fermentation with Thermo-pervaporation
		10.6.4 Pervaporation with Closed Heat Pump
		10.6.5 Pervaporation with Dephlegmation Fractional Condenser
		10.6.6 Pervaporation for Recovery and Dehydration
	10.7 Discussion
	References
Chapter 11 Production of High-Performance/Aviation Fuels From Lignocellulosic Biomass
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Feedstock
	11.3 Production Processes
		11.3.1 Overview of Lignocellulosics-to-Biojet Fuel Conversion Technologies
		11.3.2 Biochemical Conversion
			11.3.2.1 The Sugars-to-Alcohol Fermentation Route (ATJ)
			11.3.2.2 The Sugars-to-Biogas Anaerobic Digestion Route
			11.3.2.3 The Direct Sugar Fermentation Conversion Route
			11.3.2.4 Sugars Conversion Through Aqueous Phase Reforming and Hydrogenolysis
		11.3.3 Thermochemical Conversion
			11.3.3.1 Pyrolysis
			11.3.3.2 Gasification
			11.3.3.3 Torrefaction
			11.3.3.4 Hydrothermal Liquefaction
	11.4 Lignocellulosic Valorization Products Upgrading to Biojet Fuel
		11.4.1 Upgrading Pyrolytic and Gasification Products Through Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis
			11.4.1.1 Syncrude Upgrading Processes
		11.4.2 Catalysts in Lignocellulosics Conversion to Biojet Fuels
	11.5 Status and Ongoing Projects
	11.6 Gaps and Future Perspectives
	11.7 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 12 Role of Thermophilic Microorganisms and Thermostable Enzymes in 2G Biofuel Production
	12.1 Thermostable Enzymes in Lignocellulose Hydrolysis
		12.1.1 Cellulose in Enzymatic Hydrolysis
		12.1.2 Thermostable Cellulases
	12.2 Thermostable Cellulases in Ethanol Production
	12.3 Genetic Engineering for the Thermostable Cellulolytic and Xylanolytic Enzymes
	12.4 Molecular Mechanisms of Interactions Between Enzyme and Lignocellulosic Biomass
	12.5 Mechanism of Enzyme Adsorption
	12.6 Application of Thermostable Cellulolytic and Xylanolytic Enzymes
	References
Index