Life: the science of biology

Cover......Page 1
Front Endpapers......Page 2
 Investigating Life......Page 5
 Working with Data......Page 6
 Research Tools......Page 7
Front Matter......Page 8
 Copyright Page......Page 10
 Dedication......Page 11
 The Authors......Page 12
 Contents in Brief......Page 13
 Preface......Page 14
 Reviewers for the Tenth Edition......Page 18
 LIFE\'s Media and Supplements......Page 21
 Contents......Page 25
Chapter 1 Studying Life......Page 51
 1.1 What Is Biology?......Page 52
  Cellular structure evolved in the common ancestor of life......Page 53
  Photosynthesis allows some organisms to capture energy from the sun......Page 54
  Biological information is contained in a genetic language common to all organisms......Page 55
  Biologists can trace the evolutionary tree of life......Page 56
  Living organisms interact with one another......Page 59
  Nutrients supply energy and are the basis of biosynthesis......Page 60
  Observing and quantifying are important skills......Page 61
  Good experiments have the potential to falsify hypotheses......Page 62
  Statistical methods are essential scientific tools......Page 63
  Not all forms of inquiry are scientific......Page 64
  Biology is the basis of medical practice......Page 65
  Biology can inform public policy......Page 66
  Biology helps us understand and appreciate biodiversity......Page 67
 Chapter Review......Page 69
Chapter 2 Small Molecules and the Chemistry of Life......Page 71
  Each element has a unique number of protons......Page 72
  The behavior of electrons determines chemical bonding and geometry......Page 74
  Covalent bonds consist of shared pairs of electrons......Page 76
  Ionic attractions form by electrical attraction......Page 78
  Hydrophobic interactions bring together nonpolar molecules......Page 80
 2.3 How Do Atoms Change Partners in Chemical Reactions?......Page 81
  Water has a unique structure and special properties......Page 82
  The reactions of life take place in aqueous solutions......Page 83
  Aqueous solutions may be acidic or basic......Page 84
 An Overview and a Preview......Page 86
 Chapter Summary......Page 87
 Chapter Review......Page 88
Chapter 3 Proteins, Carbohydrates, and Lipids......Page 89
  Functional groups give specific properties to biological molecules......Page 90
  Isomers have different arrangements of the same atoms......Page 91
  Most macromolecules are formed by condensation and broken down by hydrolysis......Page 92
  Peptide linkages form the backbone of a protein......Page 93
  The secondary structure of a protein requires hydrogen bonding......Page 95
  The tertiary structure of a protein is formed by bending and folding......Page 96
  Shape and surface chemistry contribute to protein function......Page 98
  Environmental conditions affect protein structure......Page 100
 3.3 What Are the Chemical Structures and Functions of Carbohydrates?......Page 101
  Monosaccharides are simple sugars......Page 102
  Glycosidic linkages bond monosaccharides......Page 103
  Chemically modified carbohydrates contain additional functional groups......Page 105
  Fats and oils are triglycerides......Page 106
  Some lipids have roles in energy conversion, regulation, and protection......Page 107
 Chapter Summary......Page 109
 Chapter Review......Page 110
Chapter 4 Nucleic Acids and the Origin of Life......Page 112
  Base pairing occurs in both DNA and RNA......Page 113
  DNA carries information and is expressed through RNA......Page 115
  The DNA base sequence reveals evolutionary relationships......Page 116
  Experiments disproved the spontaneous generation of life......Page 117
  Life began in water......Page 118
  Prebiotic synthesis experiments model early Earth......Page 119
  RNA may have been the first biological catalyst......Page 121
  Experiments explore the origin of cells......Page 123
  Some ancient cells left a fossil imprint......Page 124
 Chapter Summary......Page 125
 Chapter Review......Page 126
Chapter 5 Cells: The Working Units of Life......Page 127
  Cell size is limited by the surface area-to-volume ratio......Page 128
  Microscopes reveal the features of cells......Page 129
  Cells are classified as either prokaryotic or eukaryotic......Page 131
 5.2 What Features Characterize Prokaryotic Cells?......Page 132
  Specialized features are found in some prokaryotes......Page 133
  Ribosomes are factories for protein synthesis......Page 134
  The nucleus contains most of the genetic information......Page 135
  The endomembrane system is a group of interrelated organelles......Page 138
  Some organelles transform energy......Page 141
  There are several other membrane-enclosed organelles......Page 143
  The cytoskeleton is important in cell structure and movement......Page 144
  Biologists can manipulate living systems to establish cause and effect......Page 148
  The plant cell wall is an extracellular structure......Page 149
  The extracellular matrix supports tissue functions in animals......Page 150
 5.5 How Did Eukaryotic Cells Originate?......Page 151
  Some organelles arose by endosymbiosis......Page 152
 Chapter Summary......Page 153
 Chapter Review......Page 154
Chapter 6 Cell Membranes......Page 155
  Lipids form the hydrophobic core of the membrane......Page 156
  Membrane proteins are asymmetrically distributed......Page 157
  Plasma membrane carbohydrates are recognition sites......Page 159
 6.2 How Is the Plasma Membrane Involved in Cell Adhesion and Recognition?......Page 160
  Cell membranes adhere to the extracellular matrix......Page 161
  Diffusion is the process of random movement toward a state of equilibrium......Page 163
  Simple diffusion takes place through the phospholipid bilayer......Page 164
  Diffusion may be aided by channel proteins......Page 165
  Carrier proteins aid diffusion by binding substances......Page 167
  Active transport is directional......Page 168
  Macromolecules and particles enter the cell by endocytosis......Page 170
  Receptor-mediated endocytosis is highly specific......Page 171
 Chapter Summary......Page 172
 Chapter Review......Page 173
Chapter 7 Cell Communication and Multicellularity......Page 175
  A signal transduction pathway involves a signal, a receptor, and responses......Page 176
  Receptors that recognize chemical signals have specific binding sites......Page 177
  Receptors can be classified by location and function......Page 178
  Intracellular receptors are located in the cytoplasm or the nucleus......Page 180
  A protein kinase cascade amplifies a response to ligand binding......Page 181
  Second messengers can amplify signals between receptors and target molecules......Page 182
  Signal transduction is highly regulated......Page 186
  Ion channels open in response to signals......Page 187
  Enzyme activities change in response to signals......Page 188
  Animal cells communicate through gap junctions......Page 189
  Plant cells communicate through plasmodesmata......Page 190
 Chapter Summary......Page 191
 Chapter Review......Page 192
Chapter 8 Energy, Enzymes, and Metabolism......Page 194
  There are two basic types of metabolism......Page 195
  The first law of thermodynamics: Energy is neither created nor destroyed......Page 196
  Chemical reactions release or consume energy......Page 197
  Chemical equilibrium and free energy are related......Page 198
  ATP hydrolysis releases energy......Page 199
  ATP couples exergonic and endergonic reactions......Page 200
  To speed up a reaction, an energy barrier must be overcome......Page 201
  Enzymes bind specific reactants at their active sites......Page 202
  Enzymes lower the energy barrier but do not affect equilibrium......Page 203
  Enzymes can orient substrates......Page 204
  Some enzymes require other molecules in order to function......Page 205
 8.5 How Are Enzyme Activities Regulated?......Page 206
  Enzymes can be regulated by inhibitors......Page 207
  Allosteric enzymes are controlled via changes in shape......Page 209
  Allosteric effects regulate many metabolic pathways......Page 210
  Enzymes are affected by their environment......Page 211
 Chapter Summary......Page 212
 Chapter Review......Page 213
Chapter 9 Pathways That Harvest Chemical Energy......Page 215
  Cells trap free energy while metabolizing glucose......Page 216
  The coenzyme NAD+ is a key electron carrier in redox reactions......Page 217
  An overview: Harvesting energy from glucose......Page 218
  In glycolysis, glucose is partially oxidized and some energy is released......Page 219
  Pyruvate oxidation links glycolysis and the citric acid cycle......Page 220
  Pyruvate oxidation and the citric acid cycle are regulated by the concentrations of starting materials......Page 221
  The respiratory chain transfers electrons and protons, and releases energy......Page 222
  Proton diffusion is coupled to ATP synthesis......Page 223
  Some microorganisms use non-O2 electron acceptors......Page 226
 9.4 How Is Energy Harvested from Glucose in the Absence of Oxygen?......Page 227
  The yield of ATP is reduced by the impermeability of mitochondria to NADH......Page 228
  Catabolism and anabolism are linked......Page 229
  Catabolism and anabolism are integrated......Page 230
  Metabolic pathways are regulated systems......Page 231
 Chapter Summary......Page 232
 Chapter Review......Page 233
Chapter 10 Photosynthesis: Energy from Sunlight......Page 235
  Experiments with isotopes show that O2 comes from H2O in oxygenic photosynthesis......Page 236
  Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll and other pigments......Page 238
  Light absorption results in photochemical change......Page 240
  Reduction leads to ATP and NADPH formation......Page 241
  Chemiosmosis is the source of the ATP produced in photophosphorylation......Page 242
  Radioisotope labeling experiments revealed the steps of the Calvin cycle......Page 243
  The Calvin cycle is made up of three processes......Page 244
  Light stimulates the Calvin cycle......Page 246
 10.4 How Have Plants Adapted Photosynthesis to Environmental Conditions?......Page 247
  C3 plants undergo photorespiration but C4 plants do not......Page 248
 10.5 How Does Photosynthesis Interact with Other Pathways?......Page 250
 Chapter Summary......Page 252
 Chapter Review......Page 253
Chapter 11 The Cell Cycle and Cell Division......Page 255
  Prokaryotes divide by binary fission......Page 256
  Eukaryotic cells divide by mitosis or meiosis followed by cytokinesis......Page 257
  Specific internal signals trigger events in the cell cycle......Page 258
  Prior to mitosis, eukaryotic DNA is packed into very compact chromosomes......Page 261
  The centrosomes determine the plane of cell division......Page 262
  The spindle begins to form during prophase......Page 263
  Chromosome separation and movement are highly organized......Page 264
  Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm......Page 266
  Asexual reproduction by mitosis results in genetic constancy......Page 267
  Sexual reproduction by meiosis results in genetic diversity......Page 268
 11.5 What Happens during Meiosis?......Page 269
  During meiosis homologous chromosomes separate by independent assortment......Page 270
  Meiotic errors lead to abnormal chromosome structures and numbers......Page 272
  The number, shapes, and sizes of the metaphase chromosomes constitute the karyotype......Page 274
 11.6 In a Living Organism, How Do Cells Die?......Page 275
  Cancer cells differ from normal cells......Page 277
  Cancer treatments target the cell cycle......Page 278
 Chapter Summary......Page 279
 Chapter Review......Page 281
Chapter 12 Inheritance, Genes, and Chromosomes......Page 282
  Mendel used the scientific method to test his hypotheses......Page 283
  Mendel’s first experiments involved monohybrid crosses......Page 284
  Mendel’s first law states that the two copies of a gene segregate......Page 286
  Mendel’s second law states that copies of different genes assort independently......Page 287
  Probability can be used to predict inheritance......Page 289
  Mendel’s laws can be observed in human pedigrees......Page 290
  New alleles arise by mutation......Page 291
  Dominance is not always complete......Page 292
  Some alleles have multiple phenotypic effects......Page 293
  Hybrid vigor results from new gene combinations and interactions......Page 294
  The environment affects gene action......Page 295
  Most complex phenotypes are determined by multiple genes and the environment......Page 296
  Genes can be exchanged between chromatids and mapped......Page 297
  Linkage is revealed by studies of the sex chromosomes......Page 299
 12.5 What Are the Effects of Genes Outside the Nucleus?......Page 302
  Bacteria exchange genes by conjugation......Page 303
  Bacterial conjugation is controlled by plasmids......Page 304
 Chapter Summary......Page 305
 Chapter Review......Page 306
Chapter 13 DNA and Its Role in Heredity......Page 309
  DNA from one type of bacterium genetically transforms another type......Page 310
  Viral infection experiments confirmed that DNA is the genetic material......Page 311
  Eukaryotic cells can also be genetically transformed by DNA......Page 313
  Watson and Crick used modeling to deduce the structure of DNA......Page 314
  Four key features define DNA structure......Page 315
  The double-helical structure of DNA is essential to its function......Page 316
 13.3 How Is DNA Replicated?......Page 317
  An elegant experiment demonstrated that DNA replication is semiconservative......Page 318
  DNA polymerases add nucleotides to the growing chain......Page 319
  Many other proteins assist with DNA polymerization......Page 322
  Telomeres are not fully replicated and are prone to repair......Page 325
 13.4 How Are Errors in DNA Repaired?......Page 326
  The polymerase chain reaction makes multiple copies of DNA sequences......Page 327
 Chapter Summary......Page 329
 Chapter Review......Page 330
Chapter 14 From DNA to Protein: Gene Expression......Page 331
  Experiments on bread mold established that genes determine enzymes......Page 332
  One gene determines one polypeptide......Page 333
 14.2 How Does Information Flow from Genes to Proteins?......Page 334
  In some cases, RNA determines the sequence of DNA......Page 335
  RNA polymerases share common features......Page 336
  The information for protein synthesis lies in the genetic code......Page 338
  Many eukaryotic genes are interrupted by noncoding sequences......Page 340
  Eukaryotic gene transcripts are processed before translation......Page 341
 14.5 How Is RNA Translated into Proteins?......Page 343
  The ribosome is the workbench for translation......Page 344
  Translation takes place in three steps......Page 345
  Polysome formation increases the rate of protein synthesis......Page 347
 14.6 What Happens to Polypeptides after Translation?......Page 348
  Many proteins are modified after translation......Page 350
 Chapter Summary......Page 351
 Chapter Review......Page 352
Chapter 15 Gene Mutation and Molecular Medicine......Page 354
  Mutations have different phenotypic effects......Page 355
  Point mutations are changes in single nucleotides......Page 356
  Chromosomal mutations are extensive changes in the genetic material......Page 357
  Mutations can be spontaneous or induced......Page 358
  Some base pairs are more vulnerable than others to mutation......Page 360
 15.2 What Kinds of Mutations Lead to Genetic Diseases?......Page 361
  Disease-causing mutations may involve any number of base pairs......Page 362
  Expanding triplet repeats demonstrate the fragility of some human genes......Page 363
  Most diseases are caused by multiple genes and environment......Page 364
  Restriction enzymes cleave DNA at specific sequences......Page 365
  Gel electrophoresis separates DNA fragments......Page 366
  DNA fingerprinting combines PCR with restriction analysis and electrophoresis......Page 367
  Reverse genetics can be used to identify mutations that lead to disease......Page 368
  The DNA barcode project aims to identify all organisms on Earth......Page 369
  Screening for disease phenotypes involves analysis of proteins and other chemicals......Page 370
  Allele-specific oligonucleotide hybridization can detect mutations......Page 371
  Genetic diseases can be treated by modifying the phenotype......Page 372
  Gene therapy offers the hope of specific treatments......Page 373
 Chapter Summary......Page 375
 Chapter Review......Page 376
Chapter 16 Regulation of Gene Expression......Page 378
  Regulating gene transcription conserves energy......Page 379
  Operator–repressor interactions control transcription in the lac and trp operons......Page 380
  RNA polymerases can be directed to particular classes of promoters......Page 382
  General transcription factors act at eukaryotic promoters......Page 383
  Specific proteins can recognize and bind to DNA sequences and regulate transcription......Page 385
  The expression of transcription factors underlies cell differentiation......Page 386
  Many bacteriophages undergo a lytic cycle......Page 389
  Some bacteriophages can undergo a lysogenic cycle......Page 390
  Eukaryotic viruses can have complex life cycles......Page 391
  DNA methylation occurs at promoters and silences transcription......Page 393
  DNA methylation can result in genomic imprinting......Page 394
  Global chromosome changes involve DNA methylation......Page 395
  Different mRNAs can be made from the same gene by alternative splicing......Page 396
  Small RNAs are important regulators of gene expression......Page 397
  Translation of mRNA can be regulated by proteins and riboswitches......Page 398
 Chapter Summary......Page 400
 Chapter Review......Page 401
Chapter 17 Genomes......Page 402
  New methods have been developed to rapidly sequence DNA......Page 403
  Genome sequences yield several kinds of information......Page 405
 17.2 What Have We Learned from Sequencing Prokaryotic Genomes?......Page 406
  The sequencing of prokaryotic and viral genomes has many potential benefits......Page 407
  Some sequences of DNA can move about the genome......Page 408
  Will defining the genes required for cellular life lead to artificial life?......Page 409
  Model organisms reveal many characteristics of eukaryotic genomes......Page 411
  Eukaryotes have gene families......Page 413
  Eukaryotic genomes contain many repetitive sequences......Page 414
  The human genome sequence held some surprises......Page 416
  Human genomics has potential benefits in medicine......Page 417
  The proteome is more complex than the genome......Page 419
  Metabolomics is the study of chemical phenotype......Page 420
 Chapter Review......Page 421
Chapter 18 Recombinant DNA and Biotechnology......Page 423
 18.1 What Is Recombinant DNA?......Page 424
 18.2 How Are New Genes Inserted into Cells?......Page 425
  A variety of methods are used to insert recombinant DNA into host cells......Page 426
  Reporter genes help select or identify host cells containing recombinant DNA......Page 427
  Libraries provide collections of DNA fragments......Page 429
  Genes can be expressed in different biological systems......Page 430
  Genes can be inactivated by homologous recombination......Page 431
  DNA microarrays reveal RNA expression patterns......Page 432
 18.5 What Is Biotechnology?......Page 433
  Medically useful proteins can be made using biotechnology......Page 434
  DNA manipulation is changing agriculture......Page 436
  There is public concern about biotechnology......Page 438
 Chapter Summary......Page 440
 Chapter Review......Page 441
Chapter 19 Differential Gene Expression in Development......Page 442
  Development involves distinct but overlapping processes......Page 443
  Cell fates become progressively more restricted during development......Page 444
  Inducers passing from one cell to another can determine cell fates......Page 445
 19.3 What Is the Role of Gene Expression in Development?......Page 447
  Differential gene transcription is a hallmark of cell differentiation......Page 448
  Multiple proteins interact to determine developmental programmed cell death......Page 449
  Plants have organ identity genes......Page 450
  A cascade of transcription factors establishes body segmentation in the fruit fly......Page 451
  Plant cells can be totipotent......Page 455
  Nuclear transfer allows the cloning of animals......Page 456
  Pluripotent stem cells can be obtained in two ways......Page 458
 Chapter Summary......Page 460
 Chapter Review......Page 461
Chapter 20 Genes, Development, and Evolution......Page 462
  Developmental genes in distantly related organisms are similar......Page 463
  Genetic switches govern how the genetic toolkit is used......Page 465
  Modularity allows for differences in the patterns of gene expression......Page 466
  Differences in Hox gene expression patterns result in major differences in body plans......Page 468
  Temperature can determine sex......Page 470
  A variety of environmental signals influence development......Page 471
  Conserved developmental genes can lead to parallel evolution......Page 473
 Chapter Review......Page 475
Chapter 21 Mechanisms of Evolution......Page 477
  Darwin and Wallace introduced the idea of evolution by natural selection......Page 478
  Evolutionary theory has continued to develop over the past century......Page 480
  Genetic variation contributes to phenotypic variation......Page 481
  Selection acting on genetic variation leads to new phenotypes......Page 482
  Gene flow may change allele frequencies......Page 483
  Nonrandom mating can change genotype or allele frequencies......Page 484
  Evolutionary change can be measured by allele and genotype frequencies......Page 486
  Evolution will occur unless certain restrictive conditions exist......Page 487
  Natural selection acts directly on phenotypes......Page 488
  Natural selection can change or stabilize populations......Page 489
  Frequency-dependent selection maintains genetic variation within populations......Page 491
  Heterozygote advantage maintains polymorphic loci......Page 492
  Genetic variation within species is maintained in geographically distinct populations......Page 493
  Developmental processes constrain evolution......Page 494
  Trade-offs constrain evolution......Page 495
 Chapter Summary......Page 496
 Chapter Review......Page 497
Chapter 22 Reconstructing and Using Phylogenies......Page 499
 22.1 What Is Phylogeny?......Page 500
  Comparisons among species require an evolutionary perspective......Page 501
 22.2 How Are Phylogenetic Trees Constructed?......Page 502
  Phylogenies are reconstructed from many sources of data......Page 504
  Mathematical models expand the power of phylogenetic reconstruction......Page 506
  The accuracy of phylogenetic methods can be tested......Page 507
  Phylogenetic trees can be used to reconstruct past events......Page 508
  Phylogenies can reveal convergent evolution......Page 509
  Ancestral states can be reconstructed......Page 510
  Molecular clocks help date evolutionary events......Page 511
 22.4 How Does Phylogeny Relate to Classification?......Page 512
  Several codes of biological nomenclature govern the use of scientific names......Page 513
 Chapter Review......Page 515
Chapter 23 Speciation......Page 517
  We can recognize many species by their appearance......Page 518
  The lineage approach takes a long-term view......Page 519
  Reproductive isolation develops with increasing genetic divergence......Page 520
  Physical barriers give rise to allopatric speciation......Page 522
  Sympatric speciation occurs without physical barriers......Page 523
 23.4 What Happens When Newly Formed Species Come into Contact?......Page 525
  Prezygotic isolating mechanisms prevent hybridization......Page 526
  Hybrid zones may form if reproductive isolation is incomplete......Page 528
  Several ecological and behavioral factors influence speciation rates......Page 530
  Rapid speciation can lead to adaptive radiation......Page 531
 Chapter Review......Page 533
Chapter 24 Evolution of Genes and Genomes......Page 535
  Evolution of genomes results in biological diversity......Page 536
  Models of sequence evolution are used to calculate evolutionary divergence......Page 537
  Experimental studies examine molecular evolution directly......Page 539
 24.2 What Do Genomes Reveal about Evolutionary Processes?......Page 541
  Much of evolution is neutral......Page 542
  Genome size also evolves......Page 544
  Most new functions arise following gene duplication......Page 546
  Some gene families evolve through concerted evolution......Page 548
  Molecular sequence data are used to determine the evolutionary history of genes......Page 549
  In vitro evolution is used to produce new molecules......Page 550
  Molecular evolution is used to study and combat diseases......Page 551
 Chapter Summary......Page 552
 Chapter Review......Page 553
Chapter 25 The History of Life on Earth......Page 555
 25.1 How Do Scientists Date Ancient Events?......Page 556
  Radiometric dating methods have been expanded and refined......Page 557
 25.2 How Have Earth’s Continents and Climates Changed over Time?......Page 558
  The continents have not always been where they are today......Page 559
  Volcanoes have occasionally changed the history of life......Page 560
  Oxygen concentrations in Earth’s atmosphere have changed over time......Page 561
  Several processes contribute to the paucity of fossils......Page 564
  Precambrian life was small and aquatic......Page 565
  Life expanded rapidly during the Cambrian period......Page 566
  Modern biotas evolved during the Cenozoic era......Page 571
  The tree of life is used to reconstruct evolutionary events......Page 572
 Chapter Review......Page 573
Chapter 26 Bacteria, Archaea, and Viruses......Page 575
  The two prokaryotic domains differ in significant ways......Page 576
  The small size of prokaryotes has hindered our study of their evolutionary relationships......Page 577
  The nucleotide sequences of prokaryotes reveal their evolutionary relationships......Page 578
  Lateral gene transfer can lead to discordant gene trees......Page 579
  The low-GC Gram-positives include some of the smallest cellular organisms......Page 580
  Cyanobacteria were the first photosynthesizers......Page 582
  Chlamydias are extremely small parasites......Page 583
  Gene sequencing enabled biologists to differentiate the domain Archaea......Page 584
  Euryarchaeotes are found in surprising places......Page 586
 26.3 How Do Prokaryotes Affect Their Environments?......Page 587
  Prokaryotes play important roles in element cycling......Page 588
  Microbiomes are critical to human health......Page 589
  A small minority of bacteria are pathogens......Page 591
 26.4 How Do Viruses Relate to Life’s Diversity and Ecology?......Page 593
  Some DNA viruses may have evolved from reduced cellular organisms......Page 594
  Viruses can be used to fight bacterial infections......Page 595
  Viruses are found throughout the biosphere......Page 596
 Chapter Review......Page 597
Chapter 27 The Origin and Diversifi cation of Eukaryotes......Page 599
  The modern eukaryotic cell arose in several steps......Page 600
  Chloroplasts have been transferred among eukaryotes several times......Page 601
 27.2 What Features Account for Protist Diversity?......Page 602
  their plasma membranes......Page 603
  have two flagella of unequal length......Page 605
  long, thin pseudopods......Page 607
  about 1.5 billion years ago......Page 608
  Amoebozoans use lobe-shaped pseudopods for locomotion......Page 609
  Some protists reproduce without sex and have sex without reproduction......Page 612
  Phytoplankton are primary producers......Page 613
  Some microbial eukaryotes are endosymbionts......Page 614
  We rely on the remains of ancient marine protists......Page 615
 Chapter Review......Page 617
Chapter 28 Plants without Seeds: From Water to Land......Page 619
 28.1 How Did Photosynthesis Arise in Plants?......Page 620
  Several distinct clades of algae were among the first photosynthetic eukaryotes......Page 621
  Two groups of green algae are the closest relatives of land plants......Page 622
  There are ten major groups of land plants......Page 623
  Life cycles of land plants feature alternation of generations......Page 624
  Nonvascular land plants live where water is readily available......Page 625
  Water and sugar transport mechanisms emerged in the mosses......Page 627
  Hornworts have distinctive chloroplasts and stalkless sporophytes......Page 628
  Vascular tissues transport water and dissolved materials......Page 629
  The closest relatives of vascular plants lacked roots......Page 630
  The lycophytes are sister to the other vascular plants......Page 631
  The vascular plants branched out......Page 632
  Heterospory appeared among the vascular plants......Page 634
 Chapter Review......Page 636
Chapter 29 The Evolution of Seed Plants......Page 638
  Features of the seed plant life cycle protect gametes and embryos......Page 639
  A change in stem anatomy enabled seed plants to grow to great heights......Page 641
  There are four major groups of living gymnosperms......Page 642
  Conifers have cones and no swimming sperm......Page 643
  Angiosperms have many shared derived traits......Page 646
  Flower structure has evolved over time......Page 647
  Angiosperms have coevolved with animals......Page 648
  The angiosperm life cycle produces diploid zygotes nourished by triploid endosperms......Page 650
  Recent analyses have revealed the phylogenetic relationships of angiosperms......Page 651
  Seed plants have been sources of medicine since ancient times......Page 654
  Seed plants are our primary food source......Page 655
 Chapter Review......Page 656
Chapter 30 The Evolution and Diversity of Fungi......Page 658
  Unicellular yeasts absorb nutrients directly......Page 659
  Fungi are in intimate contact with their environment......Page 660
  Saprobic fungi are critical to the planetary carbon cycle......Page 661
  Mutualistic fungi engage in relationships that benefit both partners......Page 662
  Endophytic fungi protect some plants from pathogens, herbivores, and stress......Page 665
  Fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually......Page 666
  Most chytrids are aquatic......Page 667
  Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi form symbioses with plants......Page 669
  The sexual reproductive structure of sac fungi is the ascus......Page 670
  The sexual reproductive structure of club fungi is the basidium......Page 672
  Fungi are important in producing food and drink......Page 673
  Fungi are used as model organisms in laboratory studies......Page 674
  Fungi provide important weapons against diseases and pests......Page 676
 Chapter Summary......Page 677
 Chapter Review......Page 678
Chapter 31 Animal Origins and the Evolution of Body Plans......Page 679
  Animal monophyly is supported by gene sequences and morphology......Page 680
  A few basic developmental patterns differentiate major animal groups......Page 683
 31.2 What Are the Features of Animal Body Plans?......Page 684
  The structure of the body cavity influences movement......Page 685
  Segmentation improves control of movement......Page 686
  Herbivores eat plants......Page 687
  Parasites live in or on other organisms......Page 688
  Detritivores live on the remains of other organisms......Page 689
  Some animals form colonies of genetically identical, physiologically integrated individuals......Page 690
  No life cycle can maximize all benefits......Page 691
  Sponges are loosely organized animals......Page 693
  Ctenophores are radially symmetrical and diploblastic......Page 694
  Placozoans are abundant but rarely observed......Page 695
  Some small groups of parasitic animals may be the closest relatives of bilaterians......Page 698
 Chapter Summary......Page 699
 Chapter Review......Page 700
Chapter 32 Protostome Animals......Page 701
  Cilia-bearing lophophores and trochophores evolved among the lophotrochozoans......Page 702
  Ecdysozoans must shed their cuticles......Page 704
  Arrow worms retain some ancestral developmental features......Page 705
  Most bryozoans and entoprocts live in colonies......Page 706
  Brachiopods and phoronids use lophophores to extract food from the water......Page 708
  Annelids have segmented bodies......Page 709
  Mollusks have undergone a dramatic evolutionary radiation......Page 712
  Several marine ecdysozoan groups have relatively few species......Page 715
  Nematodes and their relatives are abundant and diverse......Page 716
 32.4 Why Are Arthropods So Diverse?......Page 717
  Chelicerates have pointed, nonchewing mouthparts......Page 718
  Mandibles and antennae characterize the remaining arthropod groups......Page 719
  More than half of all described species are insects......Page 721
 An Overview of Protostome Evolution......Page 723
 Chapter Summary......Page 725
 Chapter Review......Page 726
Chapter 33 Deuterostome Animals......Page 728
  Fossils shed light on deuterostome ancestors......Page 729
 33.2 What Features Distinguish the Echinoderms, Hemichordates, and Their Relatives?......Page 730
  Hemichordates are wormlike marine deuterostomes......Page 732
 33.3 What New Features Evolved in the Chordates?......Page 733
  A dorsal supporting structure replaces the notochord in vertebrates......Page 734
  The phylogenetic relationships of jawless fishes are uncertain......Page 735
  Fins and swim bladders improved stability and control over locomotion......Page 736
  Jointed limbs enhanced support and locomotion on land......Page 739
  Amphibians usually require moist environments......Page 740
  Amniotes colonized dry environments......Page 742
  Crocodilians and birds share their ancestry with the dinosaurs......Page 743
  Feathers allowed birds to fly......Page 745
  Mammals radiated after the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs......Page 746
  Two major lineages of primates split late in the Cretaceous......Page 751
  Bipedal locomotion evolved in human ancestors......Page 752
  Human brains became larger as jaws became smaller......Page 754
  Humans developed complex language and culture......Page 755
 Chapter Summary......Page 756
 Chapter Review......Page 757
Chapter 34 The Plant Body......Page 758
  Most angiosperms are either monocots or eudicots......Page 759
  Plants develop differently than animals......Page 760
  Apical–basal polarity and radial symmetry are characteristics of the plant body......Page 761
 34.2 What Are the Major Tissues of Plants?......Page 762
  Cells of the xylem transport water and dissolved minerals......Page 764
  Plants increase in size through primary and secondary growth......Page 765
  The products of the root’s primary meristems become root tissues......Page 766
  The root system anchors the plant and takes up water and dissolved minerals......Page 768
  The products of the stem’s primary meristems become stem tissues......Page 769
  Leaves are determinate organs produced by shoot apical meristems......Page 770
  Many eudicot stems and roots undergo secondary growth......Page 771
 34.4 How Has Domestication Altered Plant Form?......Page 773
 Chapter Summary......Page 774
 Chapter Review......Page 775
Chapter 35 Transport in Plants......Page 776
  Water potential differences govern the direction of water movement......Page 777
  Water and ions move across the root cell plasma membrane......Page 778
  Water and ions pass to the xylem by way of the apoplast and symplast......Page 779
 35.2 How Are Water and Minerals Transported in the Xylem?......Page 780
  The transpiration–cohesion–tension mechanism accounts for xylem transport......Page 781
 35.3 How Do Stomata Control the Loss of Water and the Uptake of CO2?......Page 782
  The guard cells control the size of the stomatal opening......Page 783
  Sucrose and other solutes are carried in the phloem......Page 784
  The pressure flow model appears to account for translocation in the phloem......Page 785
 Chapter Summary......Page 788
 Chapter Review......Page 789
Chapter 36 Plant Nutrition......Page 790
  All plants require specific macronutrients and micronutrients......Page 791
  Hydroponic experiments identified essential elements......Page 792
  Plants rely on growth to find nutrients......Page 793
  Nutrient uptake and assimilation are regulated......Page 794
  Soils form through the weathering of rock......Page 795
  Fertilizers can be used to add nutrients to soil......Page 796
  Plants send signals for colonization......Page 797
  Mycorrhizae expand the root system......Page 798
  Nitrogenase catalyzes nitrogen fixation......Page 799
  Biological nitrogen fixation does not always meet agricultural needs......Page 800
  Carnivorous plants supplement their mineral nutrition......Page 801
  Parasitic plants take advantage of other plants......Page 802
 Chapter Summary......Page 803
 Chapter Review......Page 804
Chapter 37 Regulation of Plant Growth......Page 806
  In early development, the seed germinates and forms a growing seedling......Page 807
  Several hormones and photoreceptors help regulate plant growth......Page 808
  Genetic screens have increased our understanding of plant signal transduction......Page 809
 37.2 What Do Gibberellins and Auxin Do?......Page 810
  Auxin plays a role in differential plant growth......Page 812
  Auxin affects plant growth in several ways......Page 815
  At the molecular level, auxin and gibberellins act similarly......Page 817
  Cytokinins are active from seed to senescence......Page 818
  Ethylene is a gaseous hormone that hastens leaf senescence and fruit ripening......Page 819
  Phototropins, cryptochromes, and zeaxanthin are blue-light receptors......Page 821
  Phytochromes mediate the effects of red and far-red light......Page 822
  Phytochrome stimulates gene transcription......Page 823
  Circadian rhythms are entrained by light reception......Page 824
 Chapter Summary......Page 825
 Chapter Review......Page 826
Chapter 38 Reproduction in Flowering Plants......Page 828
  The flower is an angiosperm’s structure for sexual reproduction......Page 829
  A pollen tube delivers sperm cells to the embryo sac......Page 830
  Many flowering plants control pollination or pollen tube growth to prevent inbreeding......Page 832
  Angiosperms perform double fertilization......Page 833
  Embryos develop within seeds contained in fruits......Page 834
  Shoot apical meristems can become inflorescence meristems......Page 835
  A cascade of gene expression leads to flowering......Page 836
  Photoperiodic cues can initiate flowering......Page 837
  The flowering stimulus originates in a leaf......Page 838
  Flowering can be induced by temperature or gibberellin......Page 840
  Many forms of asexual reproduction exist......Page 842
  Vegetative reproduction has a disadvantage......Page 843
 Chapter Summary......Page 844
 Chapter Review......Page 845
Chapter 39 Plant Responses to Environmental Challenges......Page 847
  Plants can seal off infected parts to limit damage......Page 848
  General and specific immunity both involve multiple responses......Page 849
  Specific immunity usually leads to the hypersensitive response......Page 850
  Mechanical defenses against herbivores are widespread......Page 851
  Plants produce constitutive chemical defenses against herbivores......Page 852
  Plants respond to herbivory with induced defenses......Page 853
  Why don’t plants poison themselves?......Page 855
  Some plants have special adaptations to live in very dry conditions......Page 856
  Some plants grow in saturated soils......Page 858
  Plants can respond to drought stress......Page 859
 39.4 How Do Plants Deal with Salt and Heavy Metals?......Page 860
  Most halophytes accumulate salt......Page 861
 Chapter Summary......Page 862
 Chapter Review......Page 863
Chapter 40 Physiology, Homeostasis, and Temperature Regulation......Page 865
  Physiological systems are regulated to maintain homeostasis......Page 866
  Epithelial tissues are sheets of densely packed, tightly connected cells......Page 867
  Connective tissues include bone, blood, and fat......Page 868
  Neural tissues include neurons and glial cells......Page 869
 40.3 How Does Temperature Affect Living Systems?......Page 870
  Animals acclimatize to seasonal temperatures......Page 871
  Endotherms produce substantial amounts of metabolic heat......Page 872
  Energy budgets reflect adaptations for regulating body temperature......Page 873
  Both ectotherms and endotherms control blood flow to the skin......Page 874
  Some ectotherms regulate metabolic heat production......Page 875
  Basal metabolic rates correlate with body size......Page 876
  Endotherms respond to cold by producing heat and adapt to cold by reducing heat loss......Page 877
  The mammalian thermostat uses feedback information......Page 879
  Fever helps the body fight infections......Page 880
 Chapter Review......Page 882
Chapter 41 Animal Hormones......Page 884
  Endocrine signaling can act locally or at a distance......Page 885
  Hormone action is mediated by receptors on or within their target cells......Page 886
  Hormone action depends on the nature of the target cell and its receptors......Page 887
  The first hormone discovered was the gut hormone secretin......Page 888
  Early experiments on insects illuminated hormonal signaling systems......Page 889
  Three hormones regulate molting and maturation in arthropods......Page 890
  The pituitary is an interface between the nervous and endocrine systems......Page 892
  Negative feedback loops regulate hormone secretion......Page 894
 41.4 What Are the Major Endocrine Glands and Hormones?......Page 895
  Three hormones regulate blood calcium concentrations......Page 897
  Insulin and glucagon regulate blood glucose concentrations......Page 898
  The adrenal gland is two glands in one......Page 899
  Sex steroids are produced by the gonads......Page 900
  Many chemicals may act as hormones......Page 901
  Hormones can be detected and measured with immunoassays......Page 902
  A hormone can act through many receptors......Page 903
 Chapter Summary......Page 904
 Chapter Review......Page 905
Chapter 42 Immunology: Animal Defense Systems......Page 906
  Blood and lymph tissues play important roles in defense......Page 907
  Immune system proteins bind pathogens or signal other cells......Page 908
  Barriers and local agents defend the body against invaders......Page 909
  Specialized proteins and cells participate in innate immunity......Page 910
  Inflammation is a coordinated response to infection or injury......Page 911
  Adaptive immunity has four key features......Page 912
  Two types of adaptive immune responses interact: an overview......Page 913
  Adaptive immunity develops as a result of clonal selection......Page 915
  Vaccines are an application of immunological memory......Page 916
  Different antibodies share a common structure......Page 917
  There are five classes of immunoglobulins......Page 918
  The constant region is involved in immunoglobulin class switching......Page 919
  T cell receptors bind to antigens on cell surfaces......Page 921
  T-helper cells and MHC II proteins contribute to the humoral immune response......Page 922
  MHC proteins are important in tissue transplants......Page 924
  Allergic reactions result from hypersensitivity......Page 925
  AIDS is an immune deficiency disorder......Page 926
 Chapter Summary......Page 928
 Chapter Review......Page 929
Chapter 43 Animal Reproduction......Page 930
  Budding and regeneration produce new individuals by mitosis......Page 931
  Gametogenesis produces eggs and sperm......Page 932
  Fertilization is the union of sperm and egg......Page 934
  Some individuals can function as both male and female......Page 937
  The evolution of vertebrate reproductive systems parallels the move to land......Page 938
  Male sex organs produce and deliver semen......Page 939
  Male sexual function is controlled by hormones......Page 942
  The ovarian cycle produces a mature egg......Page 943
  Hormones control and coordinate the ovarian and uterine cycles......Page 944
  FSH receptors determine which follicle ovulates......Page 945
  Childbirth is triggered by hormonal and mechanical stimuli......Page 946
  Reproductive technologies help solve problems of infertility......Page 947
 Chapter Summary......Page 950
 Chapter Review......Page 951
Chapter 44 Animal Development......Page 952
  Rearrangements of egg cytoplasm set the stage for determination......Page 953
  Cleavage repackages the cytoplasm......Page 954
  Early cell divisions in mammals are unique......Page 955
  Specific blastomeres generate specific tissues and organs......Page 956
 44.3 How Does Gastrulation Generate Multiple Tissue Layers?......Page 958
  Gastrulation in the frog begins at the gray crescent......Page 959
  The dorsal lip of the blastopore organizes embryo formation......Page 960
  Transcription factors and growth factors underlie the organizer’s actions......Page 961
  The organizer changes its activity as it migrates from the dorsal lip......Page 962
  Reptilian and avian gastrulation is an adaptation to yolky eggs......Page 963
  The embryos of placental mammals lack yolk......Page 964
  The stage is set by the dorsal lip of the blastopore......Page 965
  Hox genes control development along the anterior–posterior axis......Page 966
  Extraembryonic membranes form with contributions from all germ layers......Page 968
 44.6 What Are the Stages of Human Development?......Page 969
  Organ systems grow and mature during the second and third trimesters......Page 970
 Chapter Summary......Page 971
 Chapter Review......Page 972
Chapter 45 Neurons, Glia, and Nervous Systems......Page 974
  The structure of neurons reflects their functions......Page 975
  Glia are the “silent partners” of neurons......Page 976
  Simple electrical concepts underlie neural function......Page 977
  Ion transporters and channels generate membrane potentials......Page 978
  Ion channels and their properties can now be studied directly......Page 979
  Gated ion channels alter membrane potential......Page 980
  Graded changes in membrane potential can integrate information......Page 982
  Action potentials are conducted along axons without loss of signal......Page 984
  Action potentials jump along myelinated axons......Page 985
  The postsynaptic membrane responds to neurotransmitter......Page 986
  The postsynaptic cell sums excitatory and inhibitory input......Page 988
  The action of a neurotransmitter depends on the receptor to which it binds......Page 989
  Nervous systems range in complexity......Page 990
  The knee-jerk reflex is controlled by a simple neural network......Page 991
  The vertebrate brain is the seat of behavioral complexity......Page 993
 Chapter Summary......Page 994
 Chapter Review......Page 995
Chapter 46 Sensory Systems......Page 996
  Sensory receptor proteins act on ion channels......Page 997
  Many receptors adapt to repeated stimulation......Page 998
  Olfaction is the sense of smell......Page 999
  Some chemoreceptors detect pheromones......Page 1000
  Gustation is the sense of taste......Page 1001
  Mechanoreceptors are also found in muscles, tendons, and ligaments......Page 1002
  Hair cells are mechanoreceptors of the auditory and vestibular systems......Page 1003
  Auditory systems use hair cells to sense sound waves......Page 1004
  Flexion of the basilar membrane is perceived as sound......Page 1005
  Various types of damage can result in hearing loss......Page 1006
 46.4 How Do Sensory Systems Detect Light?......Page 1007
  Invertebrates have a variety of visual systems......Page 1008
  The vertebrate retina receives and processes visual information......Page 1009
  Rod and cone cells are the photoreceptors of the vertebrate retina......Page 1010
  Information flows through layers of neurons in the retina......Page 1012
 Chapter Summary......Page 1014
 Chapter Review......Page 1015
Chapter 47 The Mammalian Nervous System: Structure and Higher Functions......Page 1017
  Functional organization is based on flow and type of information......Page 1018
  The brainstem carries out many autonomic functions......Page 1019
  Regions of the telencephalon interact to control behavior and produce consciousness......Page 1020
 47.2 How Is Information Processed by Neural Networks?......Page 1023
  Pathways of the autonomic nervous system control involuntary physiological functions......Page 1024
  The visual system is an example of information integration by the cerebral cortex......Page 1025
  Three-dimensional vision results from cortical cells receiving input from both eyes......Page 1027
  Sleep and dreaming are reflected in electrical patterns in the cerebral cortex......Page 1028
  Language abilities are localized in the left cerebral hemisphere......Page 1030
  Some learning and memory can be localized to specific brain areas......Page 1031
 Chapter Summary......Page 1033
 Chapter Review......Page 1034
Chapter 48 Musculoskeletal Systems......Page 1036
  Sliding filaments cause skeletal muscle to contract......Page 1037
  Actin–myosin interactions cause filaments to slide......Page 1038
  Actin–myosin interactions are controlled by calcium ions......Page 1039
  Cardiac muscle is similar to and different from skeletal muscle......Page 1041
  Smooth muscle causes slow contractions of many internal organs......Page 1043
 48.2 What Determines Skeletal Muscle Performance?......Page 1044
  Muscle fiber types determine endurance and strength......Page 1045
  Exercise increases muscle strength and endurance......Page 1046
  Insect muscle has the greatest rate of cycling......Page 1047
  Vertebrate endoskeletons consist of cartilage and bone......Page 1049
  Bones that have a common joint can work as a lever......Page 1051
 Chapter Summary......Page 1053
 Chapter Review......Page 1054
Chapter 49 Gas Exchange......Page 1055
  Diffusion of gases is driven by partial pressure differences......Page 1056
  O2 availability decreases with altitude......Page 1057
  CO2 is lost by diffusion......Page 1058
  Fish gills use countercurrent flow to maximize gas exchange......Page 1059
  Birds use unidirectional ventilation to maximize gas exchange......Page 1060
  Tidal ventilation produces dead space that limits gas exchange efficiency......Page 1062
  Respiratory tract secretions aid ventilation......Page 1063
  Lungs are ventilated by pressure changes in the thoracic cavity......Page 1065
  Hemoglobin combines reversibly with O2......Page 1066
  Hemoglobin’s affinity for O2 is variable......Page 1067
  CO2 is transported as bicarbonate ions in the blood......Page 1068
  Breathing is controlled in the brainstem......Page 1069
  Regulating breathing requires feedback......Page 1070
 Chapter Summary......Page 1072
 Chapter Review......Page 1073
Chapter 50 Circulatory Systems......Page 1075
  Circulatory systems can be open or closed......Page 1076
 50.2 How Have Vertebrate Circulatory Systems Evolved?......Page 1077
  Circulation in fish is a single circuit......Page 1078
  Reptiles have exquisite control of pulmonary and systemic circulation......Page 1079
  Blood flows from right heart to lungs to left heart to body......Page 1080
  The heartbeat originates in the cardiac muscle......Page 1082
  A conduction system coordinates the contraction of heart muscle......Page 1084
  The ECG records the electrical activity of the heart......Page 1085
 50.4 What Are the Properties of Blood and Blood Vessels?......Page 1087
  Red blood cells transport respiratory gases......Page 1088
  Materials are exchanged in capillary beds by filtration, osmosis, and diffusion......Page 1089
  Blood flows back to the heart through veins......Page 1091
  Vascular disease is a killer......Page 1092
 50.5 How Is the Circulatory System Controlled and Regulated?......Page 1093
  Autoregulation matches local blood flow to local need......Page 1094
 Chapter Summary......Page 1096
 Chapter Review......Page 1097
Chapter 51 Nutrition, Digestion, and Absorption......Page 1098
  Energy needs and expenditures can be measured......Page 1099
  Sources of energy can be stored in the body......Page 1100
  Food provides carbon skeletons for biosynthesis......Page 1101
  Animals need mineral elements for a variety of functions......Page 1102
  Animals must obtain vitamins from food......Page 1103
  The food of herbivores is often low in energy and hard to digest......Page 1104
  Carnivores must find, capture, and kill prey......Page 1105
  Tubular guts have an opening at each end......Page 1106
  Digestive enzymes break down complex food molecules......Page 1107
  The vertebrate gut consists of concentric tissue layers......Page 1108
  Mechanical activity moves food through the gut and aids digestion......Page 1109
  Chemical digestion begins in the mouth and the stomach......Page 1110
  Most chemical digestion occurs in the small intestine......Page 1111
  Herbivores rely on microorganisms to digest cellulose......Page 1113
 51.4 How Is the Flow of Nutrients Controlled and Regulated?......Page 1114
  The liver directs the traffic of the molecules that fuel metabolism......Page 1115
  The brain plays a major role in regulating food intake......Page 1117
 Chapter Summary......Page 1119
 Chapter Review......Page 1120
Chapter 52 Salt and Water Balance and Nitrogen Excretion......Page 1121
  Excretory systems control extracellular fluid osmolarity and composition......Page 1122
  Vertebrates are osmoregulators and ionic regulators......Page 1123
  Animals excrete nitrogen in a number of forms......Page 1124
  The protonephridia of flatworms excrete water and conserve salts......Page 1125
  Malpighian tubules of insects use active transport to excrete wastes......Page 1126
  Terrestrial amphibians and reptiles must avoid desiccation......Page 1127
  Blood is filtered into Bowman’s capsule......Page 1128
 52.5 How Does the Mammalian Kidney Produce Concentrated Urine?......Page 1129
  Kidneys produce urine and the bladder stores it......Page 1130
  Nephrons have a regular arrangement in the kidney......Page 1131
  Most of the glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed by the proximal convoluted tubule......Page 1132
  The kidneys help regulate acid–base balance......Page 1134
  Kidney failure is treated with dialysis......Page 1135
  Regulation of GFR uses feedback information from the distal tubule......Page 1137
  Blood osmolarity and blood pressure are regulated by ADH......Page 1138
  The heart produces a hormone that helps lower blood pressure......Page 1140
 Chapter Summary......Page 1141
 Chapter Review......Page 1142
Chapter 53 Animal Behavior......Page 1143
  Ethologists focused on the behavior of animals in their natural environment......Page 1144
  Ethologists probed the causes of behavior......Page 1145
  Breeding experiments can produce behavioral phenotypes......Page 1146
  Behaviors are controlled by gene cascades......Page 1147
  Hormones can determine behavioral potential and timing......Page 1148
  Birdsong learning involves genetics, imprinting, and hormonal timing......Page 1149
  The timing and expression of birdsong are under hormonal control......Page 1151
 53.4 How Does Behavior Evolve?......Page 1152
  Behaviors have costs and benefits......Page 1153
  Cost–benefit analysis can be applied to foraging behavior......Page 1154
  Biological rhythms coordinate behavior with environmental cycles......Page 1156
  Animals must find their way around their environment......Page 1159
  Animals use multiple modalities to communicate......Page 1160
 53.6 How Does Social Behavior Evolve?......Page 1163
  Fitness can include more than your own offspring......Page 1164
  Eusociality is the extreme result of kin selection......Page 1165
  Can the concepts of sociobiology be applied to humans?......Page 1166
 Chapter Summary......Page 1168
 Chapter Review......Page 1169
Chapter 54 Ecology and the Distribution of Life......Page 1171
  Ecologists study biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems......Page 1172
  Solar radiation varies over Earth’s surface......Page 1173
  Atmospheric circulation and Earth’s rotation result in prevailing winds......Page 1174
  Organisms adapt to climatic challenges......Page 1175
 54.3 How Is Life Distributed in Terrestrial Environments?......Page 1176
  Tundra is found at high latitudes and high elevations......Page 1178
  Evergreen trees dominate boreal and temperate evergreen forests......Page 1179
  Temperate deciduous forests change with the seasons......Page 1180
  Temperate grasslands are widespread......Page 1181
  Hot deserts form around 30° latitude......Page 1182
  Cold deserts are high and dry......Page 1183
  Chaparral has hot, dry summers and wet, cool winters......Page 1184
  Thorn forests and tropical savannas have similar climates......Page 1185
  Tropical deciduous forests occur in hot lowlands......Page 1186
  Tropical rainforests are rich in species......Page 1187
  The marine biome can be divided into several life zones......Page 1189
  Freshwater biomes may be rich in species......Page 1190
 54.5 What Factors Determine the Boundaries of Biogeographic Regions?......Page 1191
  Two scientific advances changed the field of biogeography......Page 1192
  Discontinuous distributions may result from vicariant or dispersal events......Page 1193
  Humans exert a powerful influence on biogeographic patterns......Page 1195
 Chapter Summary......Page 1196
 Chapter Review......Page 1197
Chapter 55 Population Ecology......Page 1199
  Ecologists use a variety of approaches to count and track individuals......Page 1200
  A population’s age structure influences its capacity to grow......Page 1201
  A population’s dispersion pattern reflects how individuals are distributed in space......Page 1202
  Demographic events determine the size of a population......Page 1203
  Life tables track demographic events......Page 1204
  Survivorship curves reflect life history strategies......Page 1205
  Survivorship and fecundity determine a population’s growth rate......Page 1206
  Life history traits are influenced by interspecific interactions......Page 1207
  Logistic growth occurs as a population approaches its carrying capacity......Page 1208
  Several ecological factors explain species’ characteristic population densities......Page 1209
  Some newly introduced species reach high population densities......Page 1210
  Many populations live in separated habitat patches......Page 1211
  Corridors may allow subpopulations to persist......Page 1212
  Management plans must be guided by the principles of population dynamics......Page 1213
  Human population growth has been exponential......Page 1214
 Chapter Summary......Page 1216
 Chapter Review......Page 1217
Chapter 56 Species Interactions and Coevolution......Page 1219
  Interactions among species can be grouped into several categories......Page 1220
  Interaction types are not always clear-cut......Page 1221
  Predator–prey interactions result in a range of adaptations......Page 1222
  Herbivory is a widespread interaction......Page 1225
  Parasite–host interactions may be pathogenic......Page 1226
 56.3 How Do Mutualistic Interactions Evolve?......Page 1227
  Some mutualistic partners exchange food or housing for defense......Page 1228
  Plants and pollinators exchange food for pollen transport......Page 1230
  Plants and frugivores exchange food for seed transport......Page 1231
  Competition is widespread because all species share resources......Page 1232
  Exploitation competition may lead to coexistence......Page 1233
  Competition may determine a species’ niche......Page 1234
 Chapter Summary......Page 1235
 Chapter Review......Page 1236
Chapter 57 Community Ecology......Page 1238
  Energy enters communities through primary producers......Page 1239
  Fewer individuals and less biomass can be supported at higher trophic levels......Page 1240
  Productivity and species diversity are linked......Page 1242
 57.2 How Do Interactions among Species Influence Communities?......Page 1243
  Keystone species have disproportionate effects on their communities......Page 1244
  Diversity comprises both the number and the relative abundance of species......Page 1245
  The theory of island biogeography suggests that immigration and extinction rates determine diversity on islands......Page 1246
  Succession is the predictable pattern of change in a community after a disturbance......Page 1249
  Both facilitation and inhibition influence succession......Page 1251
  Diversity, productivity, and stability differ between natural and managed communities......Page 1252
 Chapter Summary......Page 1254
 Chapter Review......Page 1255
Chapter 58 Ecosystems and Global Ecology......Page 1257
  The geographic distribution of energy flow is uneven......Page 1258
 58.2 How Do Materials Move through the Global Ecosystem?......Page 1260
  Elements move between biotic and abiotic compartments of ecosystems......Page 1261
  Water transports elements among compartments......Page 1263
 58.3 How Do Specific Nutrients Cycle through the Global Ecosystem?......Page 1264
  Water cycles rapidly through the ecosystem......Page 1265
  The carbon cycle has been altered by human activities......Page 1266
  The nitrogen cycle depends on both biotic and abiotic processes......Page 1268
  The burning of fossil fuels affects the sulfur cycle......Page 1269
  The global phosphorus cycle lacks a significant atmospheric component......Page 1270
  Biogeochemical cycles interact......Page 1271
 58.4 What Goods and Services Do Ecosystems Provide?......Page 1273
 58.5 How Can Ecosystems Be Sustainably Managed?......Page 1274
 Chapter Summary......Page 1275
 Chapter Review......Page 1276
Chapter 59 Biodiversity and Conservation Biology......Page 1278
  Conservation biology aims to protect and manage biodiversity......Page 1279
  Our knowledge of biodiversity is incomplete......Page 1280
  We can predict the effects of human activities on biodiversity......Page 1281
 59.3 What Human Activities Threaten Species Persistence?......Page 1282
  Habitat losses endanger species......Page 1283
  Overexploitation has driven many species to extinction......Page 1284
  Invasive predators, competitors, and pathogens threaten many species......Page 1285
  Rapid climate change can cause species extinctions......Page 1286
  Protected areas preserve habitat and prevent overexploitation......Page 1287
  Disturbance patterns sometimes need to be restored......Page 1289
  Ending trade is crucial to saving some species......Page 1290
  Species invasions must be controlled or prevented......Page 1291
  Changes in human-dominated landscapes can help protect biodiversity......Page 1293
  Earth is not a ship, a spaceship, or an airplane......Page 1294
 Chapter Review......Page 1296
Appendix A The Tree of Life......Page 1298
 Step 1: Experimental Design......Page 1305
 Step 3: Organize and Visualize the Data......Page 1306
 Step 4: Summarize the Data......Page 1308
 Step 5: Inferential Statistics......Page 1309
Appendix C Some Measurements Used in Biology......Page 1314
Answers to Chapter Review Questions......Page 1315
Glossary......Page 1333
Illustration Credits......Page 1375
Index......Page 1381
Back Endpapers: Online Resources......Page 1445