Life Below Water (Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals)

Series Preface
Volume Preface
List of Topics
About the Editors
About the Section Editors
Contributors
A
	Activities in the Area
	Adaptation to Sea-Level Rise and Sustainable Development Goals
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Introduction
		Different Types of Adaptation
		Coastal Adaptation Strategies to Sea-Level Rise
		Coastal Adaptation Approaches to Sea-Level Rise
		Mainstreaming Coastal Adaptation Strategies and Sustainable Development Goals
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
	Acknowledgment
		References
	Adjustment
	Aichit Target 11
	Alluvial Plain
	Antarctic Continent
	Antarctic: Climate Change, Fisheries, and Governance
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Introduction
			Importance of the Antarctic Region to the Planet
		Review of Main Threats to Antarctic Marine and Terrestrial Ecosystems
		Climate Change
		Fisheries and Antarctica´s Protected Areas
		Biological Invasions
		Governance
		Future Directions
		References
	Antarctica and NE Greenland: Marine Pollution in a Changing World
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Antarctica and NE Greenland: Major Characteristics
			Marine Pollution: What Makes Polar Oceans Different from the Others?
				Antarctic Region
				Greenland
			What Makes Polar Regions Cold Traps for Anthropic Contaminants?
			Which Ecological Characteristics Affect Bioaccumulation in Polar Marine Organisms?
			Strategy Against Cold of Marine Organisms: Why Are They a Risk Factor for Bioaccumulation?
		Contamination of Polar Marine Ecosystems: General Considerations
			Abiotic Polar Compartments: Are They Polluted?
			Are Polar Organisms Contaminated?
		Future Challenges
			Practical Issues
			POPs and Climate Change
			Chemicals of Emerging Antarctic Concern (CEAnC)
		Cross-References
		References
	Anthropogenic Factors
	Anthropogenic Impact to Cetaceans
	Aquaculture: Farming Our Food in Water
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Introduction
			Basic Principles
			Historical Perspective
			State of the Art
		Main Types of Aquaculture
			Finfish
			Crustaceans
			Mollusks
		Key Issues for Aquaculture
			Broodstock Management and Selective Breeding
			Genetically Modified Organisms
			Environmental Impact
				Wastewater and Pollution
				Impact on Biodiversity
			Nutrition
		Future Directions
		Cross-References
		References
	Artisanal Fisheries: Management and Sustainability
		Definitions
		Characterization of Artisanal Fisheries Worldwide
		Sustainability of Artisanal Fisheries
		Management of Artisanal Fisheries
		A Future for Artisanal Fisheries
		Cross-References
		References
	Artisanal Fishing Gears and Sustainable Development
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Harvesting
		Grappling and Wounding Gear
		Stupefying Devices
		Lines
		Traps
		Aerial Traps
		Gillnets
		Tangle Nets
		Drive-In Nets
		Falling Gear
		Lift Nets
		Bagnets
		Dragged Gear
		Seine Nets
		Surrounding Nets
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
B
	Benthic Communities
	Benthic Microalgae
	Benthonic Communities
	Biodiversity
	Bioinvasions
	Biological Diversity
	Biological Invasions a s a Threat to Global Sustainability
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Threats: Why Are Invasive Species a Nuisance?
		Are There ``Good´´ Invaders?
		The Particular Case of Marine and Coastal Systems
		Key Mechanisms in Biological Invasions
			Vectors of Invasive Species
			Stages of Invasions
			Characteristics of Invaders and Invaded Habitats
		Prevention and Mitigation
		Future Directions
		Key Issues
		Cross-References
		References
	Biological Nuisances
	Biological Population
	Blue Bioeconomy and the Sustainable Development Goals
		Definitions
		Introduction: What Is the Blue Bioeconomy?
		The Value Chains of the Blue Bioeconomy
			Challenges and Opportunities: Spotlight on the Baltic Sea Region
			The Need to Establish Strong Networks
		How to Plan (for) the Blue Bioeconomy
			Maritime Spatial Planning and Optimal Site Selection
				Multiuse
		The Blue Bioeconomy and the SDGs
			The Blue Bioeconomy and the Society of the Future
			Outlook
		Cross-References
		References
	Blue Health
	Bottom Communities
	Brackish Waters
	Bycatch: Causes, Impacts, and Reduction of Incidental Captures
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Quantifying Bycatch
		Impacts
		Human Use of Bycatch
		Reducing Bycatch
		Conclusions and the Way Forward
		Cross-References
		References
C
	Cetacean Conservation
	Cetacean Diseases
	Cetacean Health: Global Environmental Threats
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Introduction
		Cetacean Health and Marine Ecosystem Services
		Challenges in Assessing Cetacean Health
		Anthropogenic Threats to Cetacean Health
			Climate Change
			Anthropogenic Contaminants
			Fishing and Related Activities
			Noise Pollution
			Infectious Diseases
		Conclusions and Future Directions
		Cross-References
		References
	Cetacean Populations
	Climate Change
	Climate Hazards
	Climate Risks
	CO2-Induced Ocean Acidification
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Introduction
		Ocean Acidification as a Global Threat to Marine Organisms
		Ocean Acidification as a Global Concern
		Knowledge Gaps and Future Directions
		Cross-References
		References
	Coastal Defenses and Engineering Works
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Past Coastal Interventions
		Innovative Solutions
		Paradigm Shift in Coastal Zone Governance
			Levels of Participation and Key Dimensions for the ICZM Success
			Contemporary Process of Decision-Making in Coastal Works
		Structural Components of the Coastal System
		Key Issues
		Future Directions
		Cross-References
		References
	Coastal Environmental Quality
	Coastal Lagoons
	Coastal Management Guidelines
	Coastal Nutrient Supply and Global Ocean Biogeochemistry
		Definitions
		Coastal Ocean and the Global Biogeochemical Cycles
			Importance of the Coastal Ocean to Global Biogeochemical Cycles
				Where Do the Nutrients in the Coastal Ocean Come From?
				Is the Coastal Ocean a Simple Stripe of the World´s Ocean?
			How Does the Coastal Nutrient Supply Influence the Global Ocean Biogeochemistry?
				Is the Coastal Ocean Also under Threat of Acidification?
			Future Directions, or the Coastal Ocean in a Changing World
		Cross-References
		References
	Coastal Pollution
	Coastal Pollution: An Overview
		Definition
		Introduction
		Physical Pollution
			Temperature
			Light
			Noise (Acoustic)
			Radioactive Pollution
			Plastics
		Biological Pollution
		Chemical Pollution
			Agrochemicals
				Pesticides
				Fertilizers
			Metals
			Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
			Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
			Pharmaceuticals
		Future Directions
		Cross-References
		References
	Coastal Processes
	Coastal Resources
	Coastal Wetland
	Coastal Zone
	Coastal Zone and Wetland Ecosystem: Management Issues
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Coastal Landform
		Coastal Ecosystem
		Coastal Pollution
		Integrated Coastal Zone Management
		Threats to Coastal Biodiversity
		Wetland Ecosystem
		Management of Coastal Wetland and Challenges
		Case Study
			Coastal Zone, Wetland Management, and SDGs-14
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	Coastal Zone Management
	Coasts
	Cold Ocean Environments
	Co-management and Conservation Below Water in Australia
		Definition
		Introduction
		Co-management and Sea Country
		Sea Country Planning
		Indigenous Protected Areas
		Traditional Use Marine Resources Agreements
		Co-management in Action: Indigenous Rangers Looking After Sea Country
		Lessons
		Cross-References
		References
	Community-Based Research and Participatory Approaches in Support of SDG14
		Definitions
		Introduction
			Ethics, Positionality, and Critical Reflexivity
		Arts-Based Approaches: Photovoice and Participatory Video (PV)
			Photovoice
			Participatory Video
			Benefits: Empowerment, Engagement, and Communication
			Issues Related to Power and Representation
		Citizen Science and Community-Based Monitoring
			Challenges Related to Citizen Science Programs
			Citizen Science Examples in Support of SDG14
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	Concepts of Marine Protected Area
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Introduction
		Elements of the Concept of MPA
			Physical Element
			Teleological Element (Aim)
			Regulatory Element
		UN Sustainable Goal 14.5 and Definition of MPA
		Other ABMT or OECMs
		Obstacles of Legal Nature
		The Way Forward
		Cross-References
		References
	Conservation
	Conservation Target for Marine Biodiversity in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction
		Definitions
		Introduction
		SDGs and Marine Biodiversity
			SDG-Agenda
			SDG14.5
		``Constitution for the Ocean´´
			Defining ABNJ
			ABNJ Biodiversity Conservation
			MPAs in ABNJ
				EBSAs
				OSPAR Convention
				BBNJ
		SDG14.5: Progress and Development
			Achievements
			Review of SMART Elements
				MPA: Definition
				MPA: Legal Framework
				MPA: Scientific Standards
				MPA: Target Status
		SDG14.5: Improvements
			Near-Term Recommendation
			Medium to Longer-Term Recommendation
			Continue SDG14.5´s Momentum
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
	Acknowledgment
		References
	Conserving Coastal and Marine Areas for Sustainable Development: Opportunities and Constraints
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
			The Concept of Sustainable Development and Human Society
			The Sustainable Development Goals and Interaction with Coastal and Marine Environments
			Policies Towards Marine Governance: UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development
			Reinforcing Science-Policy Engagements for Effective Management of Marine and Coastal Areas
			Supporting Good Science with Adequate Data for Robust Management
			Promoting Ocean Friendly Finance Frameworks to Sustain Marine Science
			Strengthening Ocean Literacy and Enhancing the Dissemination of Ocean Information
			Addressing Social Factors in the Management of Coastal and Marine Environments
			Addressing the Modern Challenge of Plastic Pollution of Coastal and Marine Environments
			Promoting Inclusive Coastal and Marine Conservation to Facilitate Ecosystem and Human Well-Being Benefits
		Conclusion
		References
	Conserving Marine Life in Sao Tome and Principe: Concerted Actions with Agenda 2030
		Definition
		Introduction
		São Tomé and Príncipe: A Small Island Developing State
		The Biological Diversity of the São Tomé and Príncipe Sea
		Multi-Stakeholder Action for the Conservation of Marine Life
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
			Electronic Resources
			Legislation of the Democratic Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe
	Copyright
	Coral Reef
	Coral Triangle: Marine Biodiversity and Fisheries Sustainability
		Definitions
		Significance of Sustainable Fisheries in the Context of Food Security
		Marine Biodiversity-Sustainable Fisheries Linkage
		Critical Issues in Marine Biodiversity
			Marine Biodiversity Inventory
			Biodiversity Indicators
		Marine Biodiversity and Seafood Security in the Coral Triangle Region
		Benefits of Conservation Intervention
		Conclusions and the Way Forward
		Cross-References
		References
D
	Database Right
	Deep Seabed Mining and Sustainable Development Goal 14
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Introduction
		The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and SDG 14
		Deep Seabed Mining
		Reconciling the SDGs and SDG 14 with Deep Seabed Mining
		Concluding Remarks
		Cross-References
		References
	Deep-Sea Mining
	Defining and Measuring a Marine Species Population or Stock
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Fundamental Properties of a Population and a Stock
			Population Growth
			Acquiring Data for Growth Models
			Size Frequency
			Size-at-Age Analyses
			Size-Increment Analyses
		The Relevance of Population Ecology Studies
		Cross-References
		References
	Derivatives
	Destructive Fishing Practices and Their Impact on the Marine Ecosystem
		Definitions
		Overfishing
		Trawling and Dredging
		Beach Seining
		Bottom Set Fishing Equipment (Longlines, Gillnets, Pots, and Traps)
		Muro-Ami Netting and Coral ``Bashing´´
		Spearfishing
		Poisoning
		Ghost Fishing
		Blast Fishing
		Ways to Prevent Destructive Fishing
		Cross-References
		References
	Diatoms and Their Ecological Importance
		Definition
			Introduction
			The Siliceous Cell Wall
			Diversity and Evolution
			Motility in Pennate Diatoms
			Ecology
			Reasons for Success
			Applications
			Addressing SDG14
		Cross-References
	Acknowledgment
		References
	Digital Sequence Information
	Diversity
E
	Ecological and Economic Importance of Benthic Communities
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Classification
			Size
			Energy Source
			Position Relative to the Surface
		Patterns of Benthos Distribution
			Zonation in Rocky Shores
			Large-Scale Patterns
		Functions and Ecological Services: The Ecological and Economic Importance of Benthic Communities
			Ecological Relevance
			Economic Value
		Threats to Benthic Biodiversity
		Knowledge Gaps
		Cross-References
		References
	Ecological Indicators
	Ecology of Marine Fish Larvae
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Diet Composition of Marine Fish Larvae
		Fish Early Life Stages Mortality
		Assessing Fish Larvae Age and Growth Patterns
		Fish Larvae Abundance and Recruitment Variability
		Ichthyoplankton Surveys and Assemblages
		Fish Larvae Transport, Aggregation, and Retention Mechanisms
		Applications to Fisheries Management
		Marine Fish Larvae Importance on SGD14
		Cross-References
		References
	Ecosystem Governance
	Ecosystem Health
	Effective Marine Conservation
	Effective Marine Conservation in the Global South: Key Considerations for Sustainability
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		The Nature of Marine Environment
		Oceans and Marine Ecosystem Services
			Environmental Goods and Services
			Regulating Processes
			Cultural Values and Aesthetics
		The Management of Oceans and Marine Protected Areas
			Centralized, Top-Down Management
			Collaborative or Participative Management
		Problems Encountered in Marine Conservation and the Management of Marine Protected Areas
			Inadequate Enforcement and Instabilities
			Insufficient Scientific Information and Top-Down Management Tendencies
		Enabling and Promoting Effective, Resilient, and Inclusive Blue Economies
			Inclusive Participations of Stakeholders
			Managing, Monitoring, and Evaluation for the Future
			Systemic Approach and Inclusion of Available Knowledge
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	Elevated pCO2
	Environmental Governance
	Environmental Governance in Context of the Marine Ecosystem: Considerations for Sustainability
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Introduction
			A Decade of Action to Deliver the Global Goals
			Marine Education and Research for Reinforcing Sustainability in the Decade of Action
			Island Nations and Climate Action
			Reinforcing Efforts Towards Conservation of Coastal Habitats
		Troubled Waters: Creating an Enabling Atmosphere for International Cooperation to Facilitate Marine Conservation
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	Environmental Law
	Environmental Resources
	Environmental Threats to Cetaceans
	Epipelon
	Epipsammon
	Estuaries: Dynamics, Biodiversity, and Impacts
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Estuarine Ecosystem
			Types of Estuaries Based on Water Dynamics/Balance
			Types of Estuaries Based on Geological Origin
			Types of Estuaries Based on Salinity Vertical Structure and Mixing Processes
			Types of Estuaries Based on Tidal Range
		Estuarine Dynamics
			Tides
			Sediments and Nutrients
		Biodiversity of Life in Estuaries
			Estuarine Food Web
			Primary Producers
			Primary Consumers: Herbivores and Detritivores
			Secondary Consumers
		Anthropogenic Impacts
			Nutrients Enrichment
			Habitat Loss
			Chemical Contamination
			Climate Change
			Overexploitation of Resources
			Invasive Species
		Final Remarks
		Cross-References
		References
	Estuary
	Exotic Species
	Exploration and Production of Petroleum
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Oil Reserves Forecast
		Exploration
			Drilling
		Development
		Production
		Field Abandonment
		Future Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
F
	Field Caging Transplants of Fish for Assessment and Monitoring in Aquatic Toxicology
		Definitions
		Introduction
			Field Caging Transplants to Study Mercury Bioaccumulation
				Influence of Storm Events and Bed Resuspended Particles
		Future Developments and Considerations
		Cross-References
	Acknowledgment
		References
	Fish Aquaculture
	Fish Culture
	Fish Early Life Stages
	Fish Egg
	Fish Farming
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Introduction
			Basic Principles
			Demand for Food Fish
			Fish Farming as an Alternative to Fisheries
		Types of Fish Farming
			Extensive
			Intensive
			Mixed Systems
			Ponds
			Raceways and Flow-Through Systems
			Offshore/Sea Cages
			Recirculating Aquaculture Systems
			Multitrophic Systems
				Polyculture
				Aquaponics
				Integrated Multitrophic Aquaculture
		The Future of Fish Farming
			Effluent Waters
			Fish Feed
			Human Nutrition
			Governance and Certification
		Cross-References
		References
	Fisheries Management and Ecosystem Sustainability
		Definition
		A Brief History of Fisheries, Their Types, and How They Matter to the Sustainable Development Goals
		Global Status, Threats, and Effects of Fisheries on the Environment and Livelihoods
		Fisheries Management
		Fisheries Management Mechanisms and Approaches
		The Road of No Return
		Cross-References
		References
	Fisheries Management: An Overview
		Definition of Fisheries Management
		Introduction
		Fisheries Models
			Static Model
			Dynamic Models
		Applications to Regional and International Fisheries
		Regional Fisheries
			International Fisheries
		Future Directions
		Cross-References
		References
	Flightless Birds
	Floodplain
	Fossil Energy
	Fossil Fuels
	Free-Living Nematodes
	Functional Biodiversity
	Future Accommodation
G
	Gelatinous Organisms
	Genetic Diversity
	Genetic Resources
	Global Change
	Global Ocean
	Global Ocean Governance and Ocean Acidification
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Socio-Ecological Impacts Arising from Ocean Acidification
		Current Regulatory and Governance Framework Addressing Ocean Acidification
		Current Challenges
		Cross-References
		References
	Goals and Indicators
H
	Harmful Algal Blooms: Effect on Coastal Marine Ecosystems
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Introduction
			Ecological Aspects
			Phycotoxins
			Ecotoxicological Approaches
		Key Issues
		Future Directions
		Cross-References
		References
	Harvested Rainwater as a Solution for Marine Pollution and Contaminated Groundwater
		Definition
		Introduction
		Capture and Quantity: Lessons from Australia
			The Australian Experience
			The Importance of Context in Design
			Design Capacity Yield
		Social, Economic and Political Considerations: A Case Study in Bangladesh
			The Local Situation in Koyra
			Perspectives from the Capital
			A Sustainable Solution
			Battle of Perceptions
		Promoting Sustainable Rainwater Consumption in Cambodia: Conflicted Priorities and Discourse
			Alternative Priorities and Modalities of Water Provision: Bottled Water
			Bottled Water Affects Rainwater Collection Through Networks of Interaction
			Local Interpretations of the Means to Achieving Centrally Determined Ends
		Conclusion
		References
	Higher Education and Sustainable Development of Marine Resources
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Issues Concerning Sustainability of Marine Ecosystem
		Role of Universities
		Sustainability Education
		Problem-Solving Research and Innovations
		Future Directions
		Cross-References
		References
	Human Factors
	Human Impacts
I
	Ichthyoplankton
	Impacts of COVID-19 Pandemic on Marine Resources and Livelihoods
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
			Natural Resources Management
			Marine Resources Management
			Sustainable Development: A Final Decade of Action in Delivering the SDGs
			The Covid-19 Pandemic
			Pollution of the Marine Environment in Pandemic Times: The Challenge of Health-Related Litter
			Enhancing the Marine Working Environment for Safety and Well-Being of Personnel, Communities, and Other Stakeholders
			Exploring Opportunities to Save the Marine Environment in Pandemic Times
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	Integrated Ocean and Coastal Management
	Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)
	International Legally Binding Instrument
	Introduced Species
	Invasive Alien Species
J
	Jellyfish, Global Changes, and Marine Ecosystem Services
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Introduction
			Ecology
			Life Cycle
		Jellyfish and Global Change
			Jellyfish as Invasive Species
			Jellyfish and Ecosystem Changes
		Jellyfish and Marine Ecosystem Services
		Final Considerations
		Cross-References
		References
L
	Legal Approaches Toward the Achievement of SDG 14
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Governance of Marine Resources Under International Law
			United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
			Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 ...
			Ramsar Convention
			Convention on Biological Diversity
			Regional Approaches: Escazu Agreement and Espoo Convention
		Intersections
			Scientific Underpinnings of the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate
			Conservation of the Marine Environment and the Evolving Climate Nexus
			Intersections Under International Law
		Governance Approaches and Intersections
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	Life Below Water
	Low pH
M
	Macroalgae: Diversity and Conservation
		Definitions
		Introduction: Benthic Macroalgae
		Main Morphological Characteristics of Benthic Macroalgae
		Reproduction of Benthic Macroalgae
		Underwater Forests of Benthic Macroalgae (Kelp Forests)
		Diversity and Conservation
		Climate Change and Ocean Acidification
			Greenhouse Effect, Air Purification, and Recycling of Organic Matter
			Marine Algae Aquaculture: Promoting Both Carbon Sequestration and Sustainability
			Macroalgae Carbon Sequestration
		Novel Applications of Seaweeds
		Cross-References
		References
	Management and Monitoring of Eutrophication: Trophic State Indexes on the Río de la Plata Northern Coast
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
			SDG 14 for Healthy Oceans
			SDG 14 in Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) Countries
			Scientific Knowledge to Achieve Target 14.1
		Eutrophication and Trophic Indexes
			Trophic Indexes
		Case Studies
			Latin American (LA) Cases Studies
			Río de la Plata Northern Coast Case Studies
			Montevideo Coastal Zone
			Punta del Tigre Beach
			Santa Lucía River Mouth
		Final Consideration for Management and Marine Assessment Policy
		Cross-References
	Acknowledgment
		References
	Mangrove Swamp
	Mangroves Conservation: Relevant Task to Achieve the SDG14
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Mangroves in the Word
			Morphophysiological Adaptations
			Distribution of Mangroves
		Ecosystem Services of Mangroves
		Factors That Affect Mangroves Conservation
			Direct and Indirect Disturbances
			Impacts Due to Climate Change
		Strategies for the Conservation of Mangroves
			Environmental Planning
			Restoration
			Environmental Education and Social Participation
			Environmental Impact Assessment and Legislation
			Scientific Research
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	Mariculture
	Marine Animals and Human Care Toward Effective Conservation of the Marine Environment
		Definitions
		Introduction
		UN´s Sustainable Development Goal
		Conservation ``Powered by´´ Zoos and Aquaria
		Impact of Collections
			``Old-School´´ Public Aquaria
		Shifts in Perception ``Powered by´´ Public Aquaria
			Sharks
			Cetaceans
		Conclusions
			Public Aquaria and SDG14
		Cross-References
		References
	Marine Anthropogenic Litter
	Marine Areas
	Marine Bioprospecting
	Marine Bioprospecting and Intellectual Property
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Maritime Zones Based on International Regulations
		Marine Genetic Resources (MGR)
		Marine Bioprospecting
			Marine Biodiscovery or Bioprospecting
				Marine Drugs, Nutraceuticals, and Cosmeceuticals
				International Legal Instruments Influencing Marine Bioprospecting
		Marine Scientific Research (MSR) and Intellectual Property (IP)
			Marine Bioprospecting in the EEZ
			Marine Bioprospecting in ABNJ
			Why Is IP Important in Marine Bioprospecting?
			Basics of IP
			Patent
			Patent Application and Granting Mechanism
			Copyright
			Database Rights
		Interlinkages
			Patents on MGR
			Question of Ownership
			Disclosure of the Origin of MGR
			Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) of MGR
			Patents Scenario on MGR-Based Inventions
			Copyright and Software Licensing in MSR
			Database Rights and Data Sharing in MSR
		For a Sustainable Future
		Cross-References
		References
	Marine Biotechnology
	Marine Conservation/Marine Resource Conservation
	Marine Debris
	Marine Ecosystem
	Marine Ecosystems
	Marine Ecosystems: Types, Their Importance, and Main Impacts
		Definitions
		The Marine Ecosystem: Overview, Types, and Distribution Worldwide
		Coastal Ecosystems
			Estuaries and Coastal Lagoons
			Littoral Zone: Rocky and Sandy Shores
			Rocky Shores
			Sandy Shore
		Sublittoral and Oceanic Ecosystems
			Kelp Beds and Forests
			Coral Reefs
			Deep-Sea
		Importance of Marine Ecosystems
		Major Impacts
		Cross-References
		References
	Marine Environment
	Marine Genetic Resources (MGR)
	Marine Microplastics
	Marine Microplastics: Chemical, Physical, Biological, and Social Perspectives
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Microplastics - The Interdisciplinary Issue
			``Where Are the Marine Microplastics?´´ - To Understand the Global Circulation
			``What Is It?´´ - The Detailed Physical and Chemical Analyses
			``Why Should One Bother?´´ - Microplastics Interactions with Biota
		Microplastics - Not Just a Scientific Problem
		Marine Microplastics on the Roadmap of Sustainable Development Goals
		Conclusions and Future Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
	Marine Minerals
	Marine Mining
	Marine Modelling: Contributions, Advantages, and Areas of Application of Numerical Tools
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Modelling Contribution and Advantages for the Understanding, Prediction, and Planning Marine Strategies
		Evolution of Numerical Models
		Diversity of Numerical Models
		Areas of Application of Numerical Models
		Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
	Marine Park
	Marine Protected Area and Biodiversity Conservation
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Historical Development of MPA Concept
		Importance of MPAs
		Global Trend of MPAs Declaration
		SDG14 and MPA
		Biodiversity Status in MPAs
		MPAs and Biodiversity Conservation
		Challenges Towards Achieving Conservation Goals by MPAs
		Future Direction of MPAs
		Cross-References
		References
	Marine Protected Areas (MPSs)
	Marine Reserve
	Marine Resources
	Marine Spatial Management
	Marine Spatial Planning
	Maritime Spatial Planning and Sustainable Development
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Introduction
		Why Maritime Spatial Planning
		Maritime Spatial Planning in the Context of SDGs
		Major Perspectives and Future Directions for Maritime Spatial Planning
		Cross-References
		References
	Measuring Success of SDG 14: An Australian Perspective
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Indicators for SDG 14
		The Framework and Target Breakdown
		Discussion and Future Prospects
			14.1 Eutrophication and Marine Plastics
			14.2 Sustainably Manage and Protect Marine Ecosystems
			14.3 Ocean Acidification
			14.4 Fisheries Management
			14.5 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)
			14.6 Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated Fishing
		Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
		References
	Measuring Success: Indicators and Targets for SDG 14
		Definitions
		Introduction
		The SDG Targets
		The Route to Achieving the SDG 14 Targets
		Global Strategic Framework for Regional and National Implementation
		Moving from a Strategic Framework to the Selection of Indicators
		Future Requirements and Concluding Remarks
		Cross-References
		References
	Medusae
	Meiobenthos
	Metal Contamination in Marine Resources
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Introduction
		Sources of Metals
		Exposure Pathways to Metals
		Bioaccumulation
		Defense Mechanisms Against Contaminants
		Trophic Transfer
		Legislation
		Bioaccessible Contaminant Burden
		Cross-References
		References
	Metazoan Meiofauna: Benthic Assemblages for Sustainable Marine and Estuarine Ecosystems
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Benthic Meiofauna and Free-Living Nematode Assemblages Matters to Assess the Sustainable Use of the Marine and Estuarine Ecosy...
		Benthic Nematode Assemblages as Indicator of Ecological Changes in Estuarine and Marine Ecosystems
			Patterns of Benthic Nematodes in Estuarine Environment
			Patterns of Benthic Nematodes in Deep Sea Environments
		Functional Diversity of the Benthic Nematode Assemblages as Indicator of Ecological Changes in Estuarine and Marine Ecosystems
			ITD: Index of Trophic Diversity
			MI: Maturity Index
			Benthic Nematode Biomass and Morphometric Attributes
		Methodological Advances in Meiofaunal Studies
			Tracing Energy Transfer: Food Sources Revealed by Dual Stable Isotope Signatures
			Biodiversity in Nematode Assemblages: Genomic Techniques
		Meiofauna Matters for ``Conservation and Sustainably Use the Oceans, Seas and Marine Resources for Sustainable Development´´ (...
		Cross-References
		References
	Microplastics Debris
	Microplastics Pollution
N
	Nagoya Protocol on Access to and Benefit Sharing of Genetic Resources
		Definitions
		Introduction: The Road to Nagoya Protocol
		The Convention on Biological Diversity
		The Nagoya Protocol
			Genetic Resources
			Access to Genetic Resources
			PIC and MAT
			Utilization
			Benefit Sharing
			Traditional Knowledge
		The EU Regulation on Access and Benefit Sharing
		Marine Genetic Resources, SDG 14, and the Nagoya Protocol
		Key Considerations to the Nagoya Protocol
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	Natural Resources
	Natural Resources Governance
	Natural Resources Law
	Nature and Occurrence of Hydrocarbons
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Geochemistry of Hydrocarbons
			Organic Geochemistry
			Oil and Gas
			The Origin of Hydrocarbons
			From Organic Matter to Kerogen
			From Kerogen to Oil and Gas
			Oil and Gas Migration and Accumulation
		Hydrocarbons at the Marine Realm
			From Onshore to Offshore Basins
			The Deep Offshore
			Offshore Exploration and Production
		Final Remarks
		References
	Non-indigenous Invasive Species
	Non-native Invasive Species
	Non-renewable Energy
	Nursery Areas for Marine Fish
		Definitions
		Population Dynamics Within Nursery Areas
		Connectivity Between Ontogenic Habitats
		Habitat Use Patterns
		Nurseries as Key Conservation Areas
		Cross-References
		References
O
	Ocean
	Ocean Conservation
	Ocean Governance
	Ocean Health
	Ocean Literacy for Sustainable Use of Oceans Globally
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Essential Principles of Ocean Literacy
		Ocean Education Initiatives and International Developments
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
	Acknowledgment
		References
	Ocean Minerals
	Ocean Mining
	Ocean Planning
	Ocean Resources
	Ocean Sustainability
	Ocean(s) and Human Health: Risks and Opportunities
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Introduction
		The Risks
		The Benefits/Opportunities
		The Unknowns
		Future Directions
		Cross-References
	Acknowledgment
		References
	Ocean-Related Effects of Climate Change on Society
		Definition
		Introduction
			Ocean and Human Health
				Pollution/Contaminants in the Ocean
				Waterborne Diseases
			Seafood Security and the Ocean
				Dietary Regimes
				Communities Dependent on Fisheries
			Conflicts and Migration
				Illegal Fishing/Piracy
				Human Migration Due to Climate Change
			Cultural, Educational, and Aesthetical Values
				Natural Beauty, Artistical, and Spiritual Values
				Indigenous Knowledge/Coastal Local Communities
		Conclusion
		References
	Ocean-Related Impacts of Climate Change on Economy
		Definitions
		Introduction
			Fisheries and Aquaculture
			Tourism and Cruises
			Maritime Transportation and Shipping
			Coastal Assets
			Energy (Fossil Fuel Extraction and Ocean Renewable Energy, Algae, Wind, Wave, )
			Mineral Resources, Seabed Mining
			Bioprospection, Medical Resources
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	Oceans
	Offshore Mining
	Oil and Gas
	Organic Enrichment
P
	Past and Current Protections
	Patents
	Penguins: Diversity, Threats, and Role in Marine Ecosystems
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Introduction
			Importance and Diversity of Penguins
			Conservation Status and Population Trends
			Role in Marine Ecosystems
				Prey and Predator
			Threats
		Future Directions
		References
	Persistent Pollutants
	Pharmaceuticals Contamination: Problematic and Threats for the Aquatic System
		Definition
		Environmental Occurrence and Fate of Pharmaceuticals
		Sources of Pharmaceuticals
			Point Sources
			Diffuse Sources
		Fate of Pharmaceuticals in the Environment
		Effects on the Aquatic Species
		Risks for Environment and Human Health
		Final Remarks
		Cross-References
		References
	Photoinhibition: Fundamentals and Implications for Primary Productivity
		Definition
		Cross-References
		References
	Phytoplankton Blooms
	Pisciculture
	Plastic Pollution in Aquatic Ecosystems: From Research to Public Awareness
		Definitions
		Introduction: Plastic Contamination in Aquatic Environments
		Direct and Indirect Effects Plastics on Marine Ecosystems
		Public Engagement
		Future Directions
		Cross-References
		References
	Plastics and Oceans: A Socio-ecological Perspective
		Definition
		Introduction
		Types of Plastic
		Plastic Waste
		Plastic and the Environment
		Plastic and Oceans
		Microplastics
		Solutions to Plastic Pollution
		Plastics Pact
		Alternatives to Plastic Bottles
		Future of Plastic
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	Plastics in the Oceans
	Plastisphere
	Polar Ecology
	Polar Ecotoxicology
	Preservation
	Progress
	Promoting Coastal and Ocean Governance Through Ecosystem-Based Management
		Definition
		From Conventional to More Holistic Ocean Management
		Ocean Governance
		Challenges to Implement EBM for the Ocean
		Managing Climate Change
		The Way Forward: Four Domains of EBM for Ocean Governance
			Establishing Partnerships and Networks
			Promoting Inter- and Transdisciplinarity
			Avoiding Panaceas
			Building Government Capacity
		Governance as a Way to Foster EBM and Vice Versa
		Cross-References
	Acknowledgment
		References
	Protection
	Public Participation in Decision-Making
R
	Red Tide Events
	Resilient Oceans: Policies and Practices to Protect Marine Ecosystems
		Definition
		Introduction and Background
			Social-Ecological Resilience of Marine Environments
		Managing for Resilience
		Projects and Initiatives for Marine Ecosystems Protection: A Focus on Marine Litter
		Research Agenda
		Cross-References
		References
	Responsible Ocean Governance: Key to the Implementation of SDG 14
		Definition
		Introduction
		Blue Economy Development Framework
		Ocean Governance
		Role of the Ocean Business Community
		World Ocean Council (WOC)
		Private Sector Leadership
		Operation Phakisa-Oceans Economy Aquaculture Sector
		Zoning the Ocean: A Complicated Task
		Marine Spatial Planning
		Conclusion
		Recommendations
			The Quintuple Helix Innovation Model
		Cross-References
		References
	Riparian Corridor
	Role of Exclusive Economic Zones in Protecting Ocean Life
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Introduction
		Need of Exclusive Economic Zone
		Protection of Ocean Life
		Ocean Life and the Ecosystem Approach
		Challenges in Protecting Ocean Life
		Overfishing
		Disputes Between Countries about Ocean Life and Marine Resources
			An Overview on Disputes Relating to Exclusive Economic Zones and Ocean Life
			China Sea and Disputes
			Cod Wars
			Initiatives for Resolving Intercountry Disputes: ITLOS
		Global Initiatives for Protecting Ocean Life
		The UN Convention on Law of Sea
		Due Regard Obligation
		Adaptive Management
		Case Studies on Sustainable Practices for Ocean Conservation
		Case Study of WCPFC
		Case Study of Bangladesh
		Case Study of African Islands in the Indian Oceans
		Exclusive Economic Zone and Pacific Island Countries
		Case Study: New Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone
		Conclusions: The Pathways Forward to Protecting Ocean Life
		Cross-References
		References
	Role of International Law in Effective Governance of the Marine Environment
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Sustainable Development
		Environmental and Natural Resources Law
		Contemporary Society and Wicked Problems
		Addressing Alternative Approaches to Natural Resources Management: Indigenous Customs and Natural Resources Management
		International Resources and International Law
		Individual State´s Control of Natural Resources
		Collective State Control of Natural Resources
		Common Criticisms on International Laws Relating to Natural Resources and the Marine Environment
		The Scope of National Sovereignty over Natural Resources
		The Role of International Law in Facilitating Cooperation in the Management of Natural Resources
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	Role of Microphytobenthos in the Functioning of Estuarine and Coastal Ecosystems
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Introduction
		Composition
		Biomass
		Photosynthetic Activity and Productivity
		Vertical Migration
		Diatom-Bacterial Interaction
		Transport at the Sediment-Water Interface and Benthic-Pelagic Coupling
		Production of Extracellular Polymeric Substances and Ecosystem Engineering
		Trophic Dynamics
		Ecosystem Services
		Known Unknowns
		Addressing SDG14
		Cross-References
		References
S
	Salt Marsh
	Saltmarshes: Ecology, Opportunities, and Challenges
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Types of Saltmarshes
		Global Saltmarsh Distribution
		Saltmarsh Zonation
		Halophyte Functioning, Morphologic and Physiological Adaptations
		Sediment Trapping, Accretion, and the Role of Tidal Creeks
		Fauna Associated with Saltmarshes
		Ecosystem Services
		Threats
		Saltmarsh Restoration
	Acknowledgment
		References
	SDG 14
	SDG 14 and Integrated Coastal Zone Management
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Evolution of ICZM
		The Principled Approach to ICZM
		The Five Stages of ICZM
		ICZM in Practice
		Limitations and Criticisms of ICZM
		ICZM and Coastal Climate Change Adaptation (CCCA)
		ICZM and Marine Spatial Planning
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
	Acknowledgment
		References
	SDG 14: Life Under Water
	SDG14
	SDGs
	Sea Jellies
	Sea Use Management
	Seabirds
	Seafloor Mining
	Seafood
	Seagrass Meadow
	Seas
	Southern Ocean
	Spatial Data Collection for Conservation and Management of Coastal Habitats
		Definitions
		Spatial Data Collection for Conservation and Management of Coastal Habitats
			Generating Coastal Habitat Maps
			Data Collection
			Data Synthesis, Aggregation, and Map Creation
			Current Gaps of Global Habitat Maps
			Overcoming Inconsistencies
			Data Availability and Accessibility
			The Way Forward
		Cross-References
		References
	Spring Blooms
	Stranding of Marine Animals: Effects of Environmental Variables
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Environmental Variables and Atmospheric Synoptic Systems Occurring in the South Atlantic Ocean
		The Wave Climate in the Southwestern Atlantic Ocean
		Cross-References
		References
	Sustainability
	Sustainable Coastal and Marine Ecotourism: Opportunities and Benefits
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Economic and Conservation Benefits
		Sustainability of Marine Tourism
		Relevance of Knowledge Management in Ecotourism
		Role of Educational Institutions
		The Way Forward
		Cross-References
		References
	Sustainable Development
	Sustainable Development Goals to Reduce and Prevent Marine Litter
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Marine Litter Pollution
		Marine Litter and Sustainable Development Goals
		Marine Litter and Global Orchestration
		Cross-References
		References
	Sustainable Fishing Under SDG-14
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction: Current State of Oceans and Fishing
		Effects of Climate Change
		Importance of Small-Scale Fisheries
			Case Study: Combating Overexploitation with Small-Scale Fishers´ Support in Bangladesh
		Upcycling
			Case Study: The Iceland Upcycling Model
		Governance and Avoiding Illegal, Unregulated, and Unreported (IUU) Fishing
		Trade
		Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)
			Case Study: Oceania Examples
		Aquaculture
			Case Study: Regenerative Approach in Nigeria and Brazil
			Case Study: Fish-Rice Model in Bangladesh
		Reduction in Nonfood Uses
		Conclusion
		References
	Sustainable Marine Conservation
	Sustainable Supply Chain Management and Life Below Water
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Life Below Water SDG Targets and Sustainable Supply Chain Management
		Environment and Ecosystem
			Reduce Marine Pollution (Target 14.1)
				Eutrophication and Agricultural Supply Chains
				Plastic Debris
			Sustainably Manage and Protect Marine and Coastal Ecosystems (Target 14.2)
				Governance of Marine and Coastal Ecosystems
				Aquaculture Impacts
				Ocean Acidification (Target 14.3)
		Fishing Industry
		Regulate Harvesting and End Overfishing (Target 14.4)
		Conserve at Least 10% of Coastal and Marine Areas (Target 14.5)
		Prohibit Certain Forms of Fisheries Subsidies Which Contribute to Overcapacity and Overfishing (Target 14.6)
		Buyers: Organizational Buyers and Consumers
			Environmental Certification Within Seafood Supply Chains
			Increase Economic Benefits to Small Island Developing States and Least Developed Countries Through Sustainable Fisheries (Targ...
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	Sustainable Tourism in the Context of the Blue Economy
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Factors Influencing the Blue Economy
		Issues and Challenges in Managing Coastal Tourism
		Small Island Development States and Inclusive Growth
		Sustainable Tourism, the Blue Economy, and Means to Implement SDG 14
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	Sustainable Use of Marine Genetic Resources
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Sustainable Use in the Context of MGRs
		Defining MGRs in Law
		Critical Issues with a Legal Definition of Marine Genetic Resources
			Digital Sequence Information
		Derivatives
		Conclusion and Future Outlook
		Cross-References
		References
			Links
	Sustained Fishing
T
	The Act of Adapting
	The State Being of Adapted
	Tidal Freshwater Wetland
	Tourist Traps: Assessing the Role of Tourism in Sustaining Life Below Water
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Global Targets
		MPA Design and Governance
		Tourism and Livelihoods
		Tourism and Environmental Health
		Tourism and MPAs: Conflict or Synergy
		Where Do We Go from Here?
		Cross-References
		References
	Toxic Metals
	Trace Metals
	Traditional Fishing Community and Sustainable Development
		Definitions
		Definitions, Perspectives, and Characteristics
			Meaning of Traditional Fishing Community
			Perspectives and Characteristics of TFC
		Traditional Fishing Communities in an Interconnected World
			Linking TFC and Small-Scale Fisheries
			Vulnerability to Viability: The Path Forward for TFC
			Building Sustainable and Strong TFC: Enabling Global Instruments and Initiatives
		Traditional Fishing Community and SDGs
			How Can Traditional Fishing Communities Enable SDG 14?
			Connection Between TFC and Other SDGs
		Future Directions
		Cross-References
	Acknowledgment
		References
	Transitional Forms
	Transitional Waters
	Trends and Patterns of the Seaweed Industry and Its Links with SDGs
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Trends and Patterns in Global Seaweed Aquaculture Industry
			Challenges and Opportunity
			Innovations and Technologies
		Future Influencers on Global Seaweed Aquaculture Industry
			Climate Change
			Vulnerability to Natural Disasters
			Plastic Contamination
			The SDG Connection
		Status and Best Practices: Seaweed Aquaculture Industry, South Korea
			Status and Trends
			Best Practices
			Key Points for the Future Based on Literature Review to Assist Planning and Policy for the Industry
		Discussion
		Cross-References
	Acknowledgment
		References
	Types of Fisheries and Their Impact on Sustainable Development Goals
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Types of Fishermen
			Industrial Fishermen
			Artisanal Fishermen
			Recreational or Sports Fishermen
		Key Issues
		Future Directions
	Acknowledgment
		References
U
	United Nations Agreement on Marine Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction
		Definitions
		Introduction
			Why Is Marine Biodiversity in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction Important?
			Main Threats to Biodiversity in ABNJ
		The Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction Agreement
			Marine Genetic Resources
			Area-Based Management Tools, Including Networks of Marine Protected Areas
			Environmental Impact Assessments
			Capacity-Building and Transfer of Marine Technology
		Future Directions
		Cross-References
		References
W
	Water Basins
	Well-Being
	Wetland Ecosystems and Marine Sustainability
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Background, Context and Typology
		Inland Riverine Wetlands
		Riverine Processes
		Oxygen Minimum Zones (OMZs) and Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs)
		Tidal Freshwater Riverine Wetlands
		TFW Processes and Marine Ecosystem Services
		Estuarine and Marine Wetlands
		Estuarine and Marine Wetland Processes and Marine Ecosystem Services
		Coupled Ecosystems and Interlinkages
		Direct and Indirect Drivers of Wetland Degradation
		Conclusion: Wetlands and SDG 14
		Cross-References
		References