Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry

About this Book
	Cover Page
	Halftitle Page
	Title Page
	Copyright
	Dedication
	About the Authors
	A Note on the Nature of Science
	Overview of key features
	Tools and Resources to Support Teaching
	Acknowledgments
	Contents in Brief
	Contents
Chapter 1 The Foundations of Biochemistry
	1.1 Cellular Foundations
		Cells Are the Structural and Functional Units of All Living Organisms
		Cellular Dimensions Are Limited by Diffusion
		Organisms Belong to Three Distinct Domains of Life
		Organisms Differ Widely in Their Sources of Energy and Biosynthetic Precursors
		Bacterial and Archaeal Cells Share Common Features but Differ in Important Ways
		Eukaryotic Cells Have a Variety of Membranous Organelles, Which Can Be Isolated for Study
		The Cytoplasm Is Organized by the Cytoskeleton and Is Highly Dynamic
		Cells Build Supramolecular Structures
		In Vitro Studies May Overlook Important Interactions among Molecules
	1.2 Chemical Foundations
		Biomolecules Are Compounds of Carbon with a Variety of Functional Groups
		Cells Contain a Universal Set of Small Molecules
		Macromolecules Are the Major Constituents of Cells
		Three-Dimensional Structure Is Described by Configuration and Conformation
		Interactions between Biomolecules Are Stereospecific
	1.3 Physical Foundations
		Living Organisms Exist in a Dynamic Steady State, Never at Equilibrium with Their Surroundings
		Organisms Transform Energy and Matter from Their Surroundings
		Creating and Maintaining Order Requires Work and Energy
		Energy Coupling Links Reactions in Biology
		K[eq] and ΔG° Are Measures of a Reaction’s Tendency to Proceed Spontaneously
		Enzymes Promote Sequences of Chemical Reactions
		Metabolism Is Regulated to Achieve Balance and Economy
	1.4 Genetic Foundations
		Genetic Continuity Is Vested in Single DNA Molecules
		The Structure of DNA Allows Its Replication and Repair with Near-Perfect Fidelity
		The Linear Sequence in DNA Encodes Proteins with Three-Dimensional Structures
	1.5 Evolutionary Foundations
		Changes in the Hereditary Instructions Allow Evolution
		Biomolecules First Arose by Chemical Evolution
		RNA or Related Precursors May Have Been the First Genes and Catalysts
		Biological Evolution Began More Than Three and a Half Billion Years Ago
		The First Cell Probably Used Inorganic Fuels
		Eukaryotic Cells Evolved from Simpler Precursors in Several Stages
		Molecular Anatomy Reveals Evolutionary Relationships
		Functional Genomics Shows the Allocations of Genes to Specific Cellular Processes
		Genomic Comparisons Have Increasing Importance in Medicine
	Chapter Review
		Key Terms
		Problems
Part I Structure and Catalysis
	Chapter 2 Water, The Solvent of Life
		2.1 Weak Interactions in Aqueous Systems
			Hydrogen Bonding Gives Water Its Unusual Properties
			Water Forms Hydrogen Bonds with Polar Solutes
			Water Interacts Electrostatically with Charged Solutes
			Nonpolar Gases Are Poorly Soluble in Water
			Nonpolar Compounds Force Energetically Unfavorable Changes in the Structure of Water
			van der Waals Interactions Are Weak Interatomic Attractions
			Weak Interactions Are Crucial to Macromolecular Structure and Function
			Concentrated Solutes Produce Osmotic Pressure
		2.2 Ionization of Water, Weak Acids, and Weak Bases
			Pure Water Is Slightly Ionized
			The Ionization of Water Is Expressed by an Equilibrium Constant
			The pH Scale Designates the H[+] and H[−] Concentrations
			Weak Acids and Bases Have Characteristic Acid Dissociation Constants
			Titration Curves Reveal the p[Ka] of Weak Acids
		2.3 Buffering against pH Changes in Biological Systems
			Buffers Are Mixtures of Weak Acids and Their Conjugate Bases
			The Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation Relates pH, p[Ka], and Buffer Concentration
			Weak Acids or Bases Buffer Cells and Tissues against pH Changes
			Untreated Diabetes Produces Life-Threatening Acidosis
		Chapter Review
			Key Terms
			Problems
	Chapter 3 Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins
		3.1 Amino Acids
			Amino Acids Share Common Structural Features
			The Amino Acid Residues in Proteins Are L Stereoisomers
			Amino Acids Can Be Classified by R Group
			Uncommon Amino Acids Also Have Important Functions
			Amino Acids Can Act as Acids and Bases
			Amino Acids Differ in Their Acid-Base Properties
		3.2 Peptides and Proteins
			Peptides Are Chains of Amino Acids
			Peptides Can Be Distinguished by Their Ionization Behavior
			Biologically Active Peptides and Polypeptides Occur in a Vast Range of Sizes and Compositions
			Some Proteins Contain Chemical Groups Other Than Amino Acids
		3.3 Working with Proteins
			Proteins Can Be Separated and Purified
			Proteins Can Be Separated and Characterized by Electrophoresis
			Unseparated Proteins Are Detected and Quantified Based on Their Functions
		3.4 The Structure of Proteins: Primary Structure
			The Function of a Protein Depends on Its Amino Acid Sequence
			Protein Structure Is Studied Using Methods That Exploit Protein Chemistry
			Mass Spectrometry Provides Information on Molecular Mass, Amino Acid Sequence, and Entire Proteomes
			Small Peptides and Proteins Can Be Chemically Synthesized
			Amino Acid Sequences Provide Important Biochemical Information
			Protein Sequences Help Elucidate the History of Life on Earth
		Chapter Review
			Key Terms
			Problems
	Chapter 4 The Three-Dimensional Structure of Proteins
		4.1 Overview of Protein Structure
			A Protein’s Conformation Is Stabilized Largely by Weak Interactions
			Packing of Hydrophobic Amino Acids Away from Water Favors Protein Folding
			Polar Groups Contribute Hydrogen Bonds and Ion Pairs to Protein Folding
			Individual van der Waals Interactions Are Weak but Combine to Promote Folding
			The Peptide Bond Is Rigid and Planar
		4.2 Protein Secondary Structure
			The α Helix Is a Common Protein Secondary Structure
			Amino Acid Sequence Affects Stability of the α Helix
			The β Conformation Organizes Polypeptide Chains into Sheets
			β Turns Are Common in Proteins
			Common Secondary Structures Have Characteristic Dihedral Angles
			Common Secondary Structures Can Be Assessed by Circular Dichroism
		4.3 Protein Tertiary and Quaternary Structures
			Fibrous Proteins Are Adapted for a Structural Function
			Structural Diversity Reflects Functional Diversity in Globular Proteins
			Myoglobin Provided Early Clues about the Complexity of Globular Protein Structure
			Globular Proteins Have a Variety of Tertiary Structures
			Some Proteins or Protein Segments Are Intrinsically Disordered
			Protein Motifs Are the Basis for Protein Structural Classification
			Protein Quaternary Structures Range from Simple Dimers to Large Complexes
		4.4 Protein Denaturation and Folding
			Loss of Protein Structure Results in Loss of Function
			Amino Acid Sequence Determines Tertiary Structure
			Polypeptides Fold Rapidly by a Stepwise Process
			Some Proteins Undergo Assisted Folding
			Defects in Protein Folding Are the Molecular Basis for Many Human Genetic Disorders
		4.5 Determination of Protein and Biomolecular Structures
			X-ray Diffraction Produces Electron Density Maps from Protein Crystals
			Distances between Protein Atoms Can Be Measured by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
			Thousands of Individual Molecules Are Used to Determine Structures by Cryo-Electron Microscopy
		Chapter Review
			Key Terms
			Problems
	Chapter 5 Protein Function
		5.1 Reversible Binding of a Protein to a Ligand: Oxygen-Binding Proteins
			Oxygen Can Bind to a Heme Prosthetic Group
			Globins Are a Family of Oxygen-Binding Proteins
			Myoglobin Has a Single Binding Site for Oxygen
			Protein-Ligand Interactions Can Be Described Quantitatively
			Protein Structure Affects How Ligands Bind
			Hemoglobin Transports Oxygen in Blood
			Hemoglobin Subunits Are Structurally Similar to Myoglobin
			Hemoglobin Undergoes a Structural Change on Binding Oxygen
			Hemoglobin Binds Oxygen Cooperatively
			Cooperative Ligand Binding Can Be Described Quantitatively
			Two Models Suggest Mechanisms for Cooperative Binding
			Hemoglobin Also Transports H[+] and CO[2]
			Oxygen Binding to Hemoglobin Is Regulated by 2,3-Bisphosphoglycerate
			Sickle Cell Anemia Is a Molecular Disease of Hemoglobin
		5.2 Complementary Interactions between Proteins and Ligands: The Immune System and Immunoglobulins
			The Immune Response Includes a Specialized Array of Cells and Proteins
			Antibodies Have Two Identical Antigen-Binding Sites
			Antibodies Bind Tightly and Specifically to Antigen
			The Antibody-Antigen Interaction Is the Basis for a Variety of Important Analytical Procedures
		5.3 Protein Interactions Modulated by Chemical Energy: Actin, Myosin, and Molecular Motors
			The Major Proteins of Muscle Are Myosin and Actin
			Additional Proteins Organize the Thin and Thick Filaments into Ordered Structures
			Myosin Thick Filaments Slide along Actin Thin Filaments
		Chapter Review
			Key Terms
			Problems
	Chapter 6 Enzymes
		6.1 An Introduction to Enzymes
			Most Enzymes Are Proteins
			Enzymes Are Classified by the Reactions They Catalyze
		6.2 How Enzymes Work
			Enzymes Affect Reaction Rates, Not Equilibria
			Reaction Rates and Equilibria Have Precise Thermodynamic Definitions
			A Few Principles Explain the Catalytic Power and Specificity of Enzymes
			Noncovalent Interactions between Enzyme and Substrate Are Optimized in the Transition State
			Covalent Interactions and Metal Ions Contribute to Catalysis
		6.3 Enzyme Kinetics as an Approach to Understanding Mechanism
			Substrate Concentration Affects the Rate of Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions
			The Relationship between Substrate Concentration and Reaction Rate Can Be Expressed with the Michaelis-Menten Equation
			Michaelis-Menten Kinetics Can Be Analyzed Quantitatively
			Kinetic Parameters Are Used to Compare Enzyme Activities
			Many Enzymes Catalyze Reactions with Two or More Substrates
			Enzyme Activity Depends on pH
			Pre–Steady State Kinetics Can Provide Evidence for Specific Reaction Steps
			Enzymes Are Subject to Reversible or Irreversible Inhibition
		6.4 Examples of Enzymatic Reactions
			The Chymotrypsin Mechanism Involves Acylation and Deacylation of a Ser Residue
			An Understanding of Protease Mechanisms Leads to New Treatments for HIV Infection
			Hexokinase Undergoes Induced Fit on Substrate Binding
			The Enolase Reaction Mechanism Requires Metal Ions
			An Understanding of Enzyme Mechanism Produces Useful Antibiotics
		6.5 Regulatory Enzymes
			Allosteric Enzymes Undergo Conformational Changes in Response to Modulator Binding
			The Kinetic Properties of Allosteric Enzymes Diverge from Michaelis-Menten Behavior
			Some Enzymes Are Regulated by Reversible Covalent Modification
			Phosphoryl Groups Affect the Structure and Catalytic Activity of Enzymes
			Multiple Phosphorylations Allow Exquisite Regulatory Control
			Some Enzymes and Other Proteins Are Regulated by Proteolytic Cleavage of an Enzyme Precursor
			A Cascade of Proteolytically Activated Zymogens Leads to Blood Coagulation
			Some Regulatory Enzymes Use Several Regulatory Mechanisms
		Chapter Review
			Key Terms
			Problems
	Chapter 7 Carbohydrates and Glycobiology
		7.1 Monosaccharides and Disaccharides
			The Two Families of Monosaccharides Are Aldoses and Ketoses
			Monosaccharides Have Asymmetric Centers
			The Common Monosaccharides Have Cyclic Structures
			Organisms Contain a Variety of Hexose Derivatives
			Sugars That Are, or Can Form, Aldehydes Are Reducing Sugars
		7.2 Polysaccharides
			Some Homopolysaccharides Are Storage Forms of Fuel
			Some Homopolysaccharides Serve Structural Roles
			Steric Factors and Hydrogen Bonding Influence Homopolysaccharide Folding
			Peptidoglycan Reinforces the Bacterial Cell Wall
			Glycosaminoglycans Are Heteropolysaccharides of the Extracellular Matrix
		7.3 Glycoconjugates: Proteoglycans, Glycoproteins, and Glycolipids
			Proteoglycans Are Glycosaminoglycan-Containing Macromolecules of the Cell Surface and Extracellular Matrix
			Glycoproteins Have Covalently Attached Oligosaccharides
			Glycolipids and Lipopolysaccharides Are Membrane Components
		7.4 Carbohydrates as Informational Molecules: The Sugar Code
			Oligosaccharide Structures Are Information-Dense
			Lectins Are Proteins That Read the Sugar Code and Mediate Many Biological Processes
			Lectin-Carbohydrate Interactions Are Highly Specific and Often Multivalent
		7.5 Working with Carbohydrates
		Chapter Review
			Key Terms
			Problems
	Chapter 8 Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids
		8.1 Some Basic Definitions and Conventions
			Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids Have Characteristic Bases and Pentoses
			Phosphodiester Bonds Link Successive Nucleotides in Nucleic Acids
			The Properties of Nucleotide Bases Affect the Three-Dimensional Structure of Nucleic Acids
		8.2 Nucleic Acid Structure
			DNA Is a Double Helix That Stores Genetic Information
			DNA Can Occur in Different Three-Dimensional Forms
			Certain DNA Sequences Adopt Unusual Structures
			Messenger RNAs Code for Polypeptide Chains
			Many RNAs Have More Complex Three-Dimensional Structures
		8.3 Nucleic Acid Chemistry
			Double-Helical DNA and RNA Can Be Denatured
			Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids Undergo Nonenzymatic Transformations
			Some Bases of DNA Are Methylated
			The Chemical Synthesis of DNA Has Been Automated
			Gene Sequences Can Be Amplified with the Polymerase Chain Reaction
			The Sequences of Long DNA Strands Can Be Determined
			DNA Sequencing Technologies Are Advancing Rapidly
		8.4 Other Functions of Nucleotides
			Nucleotides Carry Chemical Energy in Cells
			Adenine Nucleotides Are Components of Many Enzyme Cofactors
			Some Nucleotides Are Regulatory Molecules
			Adenine Nucleotides Also Serve as Signals
		Chapter Review
			Key Terms
			Problems
	Chapter 9 DNA-Based Information Technologies
		9.1 Studying Genes and Their Products
			Genes Can Be Isolated by DNA Cloning
			Restriction Endonucleases and DNA Ligases Yield Recombinant DNA
			Cloning Vectors Allow Amplification of Inserted DNA Segments
			Cloned Genes Can Be Expressed to Amplify Protein Production
			Many Different Systems Are Used to Express Recombinant Proteins
			Alteration of Cloned Genes Produces Altered Proteins
			Terminal Tags Provide Handles for Affinity Purification
			The Polymerase Chain Reaction Offers Many Options for Cloning Experiments
			DNA Libraries Are Specialized Catalogs of Genetic Information
		9.2 Exploring Protein Function on the Scale of Cells or Whole Organisms
			Sequence or Structural Relationships Can Suggest Protein Function
			When and Where a Protein Is Present in a Cell Can Suggest Protein Function
			Knowing What a Protein Interacts with Can Suggest Its Function
			The Effect of Deleting or Altering a Protein Can Suggest Its Function
			Many Proteins Are Still Undiscovered
		9.3 Genomics and the Human Story
			The Human Genome Contains Many Types of Sequences
			Genome Sequencing Informs Us about Our Humanity
			Genome Comparisons Help Locate Genes Involved in Disease
			Genome Sequences Inform Us about Our Past and Provide Opportunities for the Future
		Chapter Review
			Key Terms
			Problems
	Chapter 10 Lipids
		10.1 Storage Lipids
			Fatty Acids Are Hydrocarbon Derivatives
			Triacylglycerols Are Fatty Acid Esters of Glycerol
			Triacylglycerols Provide Stored Energy and Insulation
			Partial Hydrogenation of Cooking Oils Improves Their Stability but Creates Fatty Acids with Harmful Health Effects
			Waxes Serve as Energy Stores and Water Repellents
		10.2 Structural Lipids in Membranes
			Glycerophospholipids Are Derivatives of Phosphatidic Acid
			Some Glycerophospholipids Have Ether-Linked Fatty Acids
			Galactolipids of Plants and Ether-Linked Lipids of Archaea Are Environmental Adaptations
			Sphingolipids Are Derivatives of Sphingosine
			Sphingolipids at Cell Surfaces Are Sites of Biological Recognition
			Phospholipids and Sphingolipids Are Degraded in Lysosomes
			Sterols Have Four Fused Carbon Rings
		10.3 Lipids as Signals, Cofactors, and Pigments
			Phosphatidylinositols and Sphingosine Derivatives Act as Intracellular Signals
			Eicosanoids Carry Messages to Nearby Cells
			Steroid Hormones Carry Messages between Tissues
			Vascular Plants Produce Thousands of Volatile Signals
			Vitamins A and D Are Hormone Precursors
			Vitamins E and K and the Lipid Quinones Are Oxidation-Reduction Cofactors
			Dolichols Activate Sugar Precursors for Biosynthesis
			Many Natural Pigments Are Lipidic Conjugated Dienes
			Polyketides Are Natural Products with Potent Biological Activities
		10.4 Working with Lipids
			Lipid Extraction Requires Organic Solvents
			Adsorption Chromatography Separates Lipids of Different Polarity
			Gas Chromatography Resolves Mixtures of Volatile Lipid Derivatives
			Specific Hydrolysis Aids in Determination of Lipid Structure
			Mass Spectrometry Reveals Complete Lipid Structure
			Lipidomics Seeks to Catalog All Lipids and Their Functions
		Chapter Review
			Key Terms
			Problems
	Chapter 11 Biological Membranes and Transport
		11.1 The Composition and Architecture of Membranes
			The Lipid Bilayer Is Stable in Water
			Bilayer Architecture Underlies the Structure and Function of Biological Membranes
			The Endomembrane System Is Dynamic and Functionally Differentiated
			Membrane Proteins Are Receptors, Transporters, and Enzymes
			Membrane Proteins Differ in the Nature of Their Association with the Membrane Bilayer
			The Topology of an Integral Membrane Protein Can Often Be Predicted from Its Sequence
			Covalently Attached Lipids Anchor or Direct Some Membrane Proteins
		11.2 Membrane Dynamics
			Acyl Groups in the Bilayer Interior Are Ordered to Varying Degrees
			Transbilayer Movement of Lipids Requires Catalysis
			Lipids and Proteins Diffuse Laterally in the Bilayer
			Sphingolipids and Cholesterol Cluster Together in Membrane Rafts
			Membrane Curvature and Fusion Are Central to Many Biological Processes
			Integral Proteins of the Plasma Membrane Are Involved in Surface Adhesion, Signaling, and Other Cellular Processes
		11.3 Solute Transport across Membranes
			Transport May Be Passive or Active
			Transporters and Ion Channels Share Some Structural Properties but Have Different Mechanisms
			The Glucose Transporter of Erythrocytes Mediates Passive Transport
			The Chloride-Bicarbonate Exchanger Catalyzes Electroneutral Cotransport of Anions across the Plasma Membrane
			Active Transport Results in Solute Movement against a Concentration or Electrochemical Gradient
			P-Type ATPases Undergo Phosphorylation during Their Catalytic Cycles
			V-Type and F-Type ATPases Are ATP-Driven Proton Pumps
			ABC Transporters Use ATP to Drive the Active Transport of a Wide Variety of Substrates
			Ion Gradients Provide the Energy for Secondary Active Transport
			Aquaporins Form Hydrophilic Transmembrane Channels for the Passage of Water
			Ion-Selective Channels Allow Rapid Movement of Ions across Membranes
			The Structure of a K[+] Channel Reveals the Basis for Its Specificity
		Chapter Review
			Key Terms
			Problems
	Chapter 12 Biochemical Signaling
		12.1 General Features of Signal Transduction
			Signal-Transducing Systems Share Common Features
			The General Process of Signal Transduction in Animals Is Universal
		12.2 G Protein–Coupled Receptors and Second Messengers
			The β-Adrenergic Receptor System Acts through the Second Messenger cAMP
			Cyclic AMP Activates Protein Kinase A
			Several Mechanisms Cause Termination of the β-Adrenergic Response
			The β-Adrenergic Receptor Is Desensitized by Phosphorylation and by Association with Arrestin
			Cyclic AMP Acts as a Second Messenger for Many Regulatory Molecules
			G Proteins Act as Self-Limiting Switches in Many Processes
			Diacylglycerol, Inositol Trisphosphate, and Ca2+ Have Related Roles as Second Messengers
			Calcium Is a Second Messenger That Is Limited in Space and Time
		12.3 GPCRs in Vision, Olfaction, and Gustation
			The Vertebrate Eye Uses Classic GPCR Mechanisms
			Vertebrate Olfaction and Gustation Use Mechanisms Similar to the Visual System
			All GPCR Systems Share Universal Features
		12.4 Receptor Tyrosine Kinases
			Stimulation of the Insulin Receptor Initiates a Cascade of Protein Phosphorylation Reactions
			The Membrane Phospholipid PIP3 Functions at a Branch in Insulin Signaling
			Cross Talk among Signaling Systems Is Common and Complex
		12.5 Multivalent Adaptor Proteins and Membrane Rafts
			Protein Modules Bind Phosphorylated Tyr, Ser, or Thr Residues in Partner Proteins
			Membrane Rafts and Caveolae Segregate Signaling Proteins
		12.6 Gated Ion Channels
			Ion Channels Underlie Rapid Electrical Signaling in Excitable Cells
			Voltage-Gated Ion Channels Produce Neuronal Action Potentials
			Neurons Have Receptor Channels That Respond to Different Neurotransmitters
			Toxins Target Ion Channels
		12.7 Regulation of Transcription by Nuclear Hormone Receptors
		12.8 Regulation of the Cell Cycle by Protein Kinases
			The Cell Cycle Has Four Stages
			Levels of Cyclin-Dependent Protein Kinases Oscillate
			CDKs Are Regulated by Phosphorylation, Cyclin Degradation, Growth Factors, and Specific Inhibitors
			CDKs Regulate Cell Division by Phosphorylating Critical Proteins
		12.9 Oncogenes, Tumor Suppressor Genes, and Programmed Cell Death
			Oncogenes Are Mutant Forms of the Genes for Proteins That Regulate the Cell Cycle
			Defects in Certain Genes Remove Normal Restraints on Cell Division
			Apoptosis Is Programmed Cell Suicide
		Chapter Review
			Key Terms
			Problems
Part II Bioenergetics and Metabolism
	Chapter 13 Introduction to Metabolism
		13.1 Bioenergetics and Thermodynamics
			Biological Energy Transformations Obey the Laws of Thermodynamics
			Standard Free-Energy Change Is Directly Related to the Equilibrium Constant
			Actual Free-Energy Changes Depend on Reactant and Product Concentrations
			Standard Free-Energy Changes Are Additive
		13.2 Chemical Logic and Common Biochemical Reactions
			Biochemical Reactions Occur in Repeating Patterns
			Biochemical and Chemical Equations Are Not Identical
		13.3 Phosphoryl Group Transfers and ATP
			The Free-Energy Change for ATP Hydrolysis Is Large and Negative
			Other Phosphorylated Compounds and Thioesters Also Have Large, Negative Free Energies of Hydrolysis
			ATP Provides Energy by Group Transfers, Not by Simple Hydrolysis
			ATP Donates Phosphoryl, Pyrophosphoryl, and Adenylyl Groups
			Assembly of Informational Macromolecules Requires Energy
			Transphosphorylations between Nucleotides Occur in All Cell Types
		13.4 Biological Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
			The Flow of Electrons Can Do Biological Work
			Oxidation-Reductions Can Be Described as Half-Reactions
			Biological Oxidations Often Involve Dehydrogenation
			Reduction Potentials Measure Affinity for Electrons
			Standard Reduction Potentials Can Be Used to Calculate Free-Energy Change
			A Few Types of Coenzymes and Proteins Serve as Universal Electron Carriers
			NAD Has Important Functions in Addition to Electron Transfer
			Flavin Nucleotides Are Tightly Bound in Flavoproteins
		13.5 Regulation of Metabolic Pathways
			Cells and Organisms Maintain a Dynamic Steady State
			Both the Amount and the Catalytic Activity of an Enzyme Can Be Regulated
			Reactions Far from Equilibrium in Cells Are Common Points of Regulation
			Adenine Nucleotides Play Special Roles in Metabolic Regulation
		Chapter Review
			Key Terms
			Problems
	Chapter 14 Glycolysis, Gluconeogenesis, and the Pentose Phosphate Pathway
		14.1 Glycolysis
			An Overview: Glycolysis Has Two Phases
			The Preparatory Phase of Glycolysis Requires ATP
			The Payoff Phase of Glycolysis Yields ATP and NADH
			The Overall Balance Sheet Shows a Net Gain of Two ATP and Two NADH Per Glucose
		14.2 Feeder Pathways for Glycolysis
			Endogenous Glycogen and Starch Are Degraded by Phosphorolysis
			Dietary Polysaccharides and Disaccharides Undergo Hydrolysis to Monosaccharides
		14.3 Fates of Pyruvate
			The Pasteur and Warburg Effects Are Due to Dependence on Glycolysis Alone for ATP Production
			Pyruvate Is the Terminal Electron Acceptor in Lactic Acid Fermentation
			Ethanol Is the Reduced Product in Ethanol Fermentation
			Fermentations Produce Some Common Foods and Industrial Chemicals
		14.4 Gluconeogenesis
			The First Bypass: Conversion of Pyruvate to Phosphoenolpyruvate Requires Two Exergonic Reactions
			The Second and Third Bypasses Are Simple Dephosphorylations by Phosphatases
			Gluconeogenesis Is Energetically Expensive, But Essential
			Mammals Cannot Convert Fatty Acids to Glucose; Plants and Microorganisms Can
		14.5 Coordinated Regulation of Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis
			Hexokinase Isozymes Are Affected Differently by Their Product, Glucose 6-Phosphate
			Phosphofructokinase-1 and Fructose 1,6-Bisphosphatase Are Reciprocally Regulated
			Fructose 2,6-Bisphosphate Is a Potent Allosteric Regulator of PFK-1 and FBPase-1
			Xylulose 5-Phosphate Is a Key Regulator of Carbohydrate and Fat Metabolism
			The Glycolytic Enzyme Pyruvate Kinase Is Allosterically Inhibited by ATP
			Conversion of Pyruvate to Phosphoenolpyruvate Is Stimulated When Fatty Acids Are Available
			Transcriptional Regulation Changes the Number of Enzyme Molecules
		14.6 Pentose Phosphate Pathway of Glucose Oxidation
			The Oxidative Phase Produces NADPH and Pentose Phosphates
			The Nonoxidative Phase Recycles Pentose Phosphates to Glucose 6-Phosphate
			Glucose 6-Phosphate Is Partitioned between Glycolysis and the Pentose Phosphate Pathway
			Thiamine Deficiency Causes Beriberi and Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome
		Chapter Review
			Key Terms
			Problems
	Chapter 15 The Metabolism of Glycogen in Animals
		15.1 The Structure and Function of Glycogen
			Vertebrate Animals Require a Ready Fuel Source for Brain and Muscle
			Glycogen Granules Have Many Tiers of Branched Chains of d-Glucose
		15.2 Breakdown and Synthesis of Glycogen
			Glycogen Breakdown Is Catalyzed by Glycogen Phosphorylase
			Glucose 1-Phosphate Can Enter Glycolysis or, in Liver, Replenish Blood Glucose
			The Sugar Nucleotide UDP-Glucose Donates Glucose for Glycogen Synthesis
			Glycogenin Primes the Initial Sugar Residues in Glycogen
		15.3 Coordinated Regulation of Glycogen Breakdown and Synthesis
			Glycogen Phosphorylase Is Regulated by Hormone-Stimulated Phosphorylation and by Allosteric Effectors
			Glycogen Synthase Also Is Subject to Multiple Levels of Regulation
			Allosteric and Hormonal Signals Coordinate Carbohydrate Metabolism Globally
			Carbohydrate and Lipid Metabolism Are Integrated by Hormonal and Allosteric Mechanisms
		Chapter Review
			Key Terms
			Problems
	Chapter 16 The Citric Acid Cycle
		16.1 Production of Acetyl-CoA (Activated Acetate)
			Pyruvate Is Oxidized to Acetyl-CoA and CO2
			The PDH Complex Employs Three Enzymes and Five Coenzymes to Oxidize Pyruvate
			The PDH Complex Channels Its Intermediates through Five Reactions
		16.2 Reactions of the Citric Acid Cycle
			The Sequence of Reactions in the Citric Acid Cycle Makes Chemical Sense
			The Citric Acid Cycle Has Eight Steps
			The Energy of Oxidations in the Cycle Is Efficiently Conserved
		16.3 The Hub of Intermediary Metabolism
			The Citric Acid Cycle Serves in Both Catabolic and Anabolic Processes
			Anaplerotic Reactions Replenish Citric Acid Cycle Intermediates
			Biotin in Pyruvate Carboxylase Carries One-Carbon (CO2) Groups
		16.4 Regulation of the Citric Acid Cycle
			Production of Acetyl-CoA by the PDH Complex Is Regulated by Allosteric and Covalent Mechanisms
			The Citric Acid Cycle Is Also Regulated at Three Exergonic Steps
			Citric Acid Cycle Activity Changes in Tumors
			Certain Intermediates Are Channeled through Metabolons
		Chapter Review
			Key Terms
			Problems
	Chapter 17 Fatty Acid Catabolism
		17.1 Digestion, Mobilization, and Transport of Fats
			Dietary Fats Are Absorbed in the Small Intestine
			Hormones Trigger Mobilization of Stored Triacylglycerols
			Fatty Acids Are Activated and Transported into Mitochondria
		17.2 Oxidation of Fatty Acids
			The β Oxidation of Saturated Fatty Acids Has Four Basic Steps
			The Four β-Oxidation Steps Are Repeated to Yield Acetyl-CoA and ATP
			Acetyl-CoA Can Be Further Oxidized in the Citric Acid Cycle
			Oxidation of Unsaturated Fatty Acids Requires Two Additional Reactions
			Complete Oxidation of Odd-Number Fatty Acids Requires Three Extra Reactions
			Fatty Acid Oxidation Is Tightly Regulated
			Transcription Factors Turn on the Synthesis of Proteins for Lipid Catabolism
			Genetic Defects in Fatty Acyl–CoA Dehydrogenases Cause Serious Disease
			Peroxisomes Also Carry Out β Oxidation
			Phytanic Acid Undergoes α Oxidation in Peroxisomes
		17.3 Ketone Bodies
			Ketone Bodies, Formed in the Liver, Are Exported to Other Organs as Fuel
			Ketone Bodies Are Overproduced in Diabetes and during Starvation
		Chapter Review
			Key Terms
			Problems
	Chapter 18 Amino Acid Oxidation and the Production of Urea
		18.1 Metabolic Fates of Amino Groups
			Dietary Protein Is Enzymatically Degraded to Amino Acids
			Pyridoxal Phosphate Participates in the Transfer of α-Amino Groups to α-Ketoglutarate
			Glutamate Releases Its Amino Group as Ammonia in the Liver
			Glutamine Transports Ammonia in the Bloodstream
			Alanine Transports Ammonia from Skeletal Muscles to the Liver
			Ammonia Is Toxic to Animals
		18.2 Nitrogen Excretion and the Urea Cycle
			Urea Is Produced from Ammonia in Five Enzymatic Steps
			The Citric Acid and Urea Cycles Can Be Linked
			The Activity of the Urea Cycle Is Regulated at Two Levels
			Pathway Interconnections Reduce the Energetic Cost of Urea Synthesis
			Genetic Defects in the Urea Cycle Can Be Life-Threatening
		18.3 Pathways of Amino Acid Degradation
			Some Amino Acids Can Contribute to Gluconeogenesis, Others to Ketone Body Formation
			Several Enzyme Cofactors Play Important Roles in Amino Acid Catabolism
			Six Amino Acids Are Degraded to Pyruvate
			Seven Amino Acids Are Degraded to Acetyl-CoA
			Phenylalanine Catabolism Is Genetically Defective in Some People
			Five Amino Acids Are Converted to -Ketoglutarate
			Four Amino Acids Are Converted to Succinyl-CoA
			Branched-Chain Amino Acids Are Not Degraded in the Liver
			Asparagine and Aspartate Are Degraded to Oxaloacetate
		Chapter Review
			Key Terms
			Problems
	Chapter 19 Oxidative Phosphorylation
		19.1 The Mitochondrial Respiratory Chain
			Electrons Are Funneled to Universal Electron Acceptors
			Electrons Pass through a Series of Membrane-Bound Carriers
			Electron Carriers Function in Multienzyme Complexes
			Mitochondrial Complexes Associate in Respirasomes
			Other Pathways Donate Electrons to the Respiratory Chain via Ubiquinone
			The Energy of Electron Transfer Is Efficiently Conserved in a Proton Gradient
			Reactive Oxygen Species Are Generated during Oxidative Phosphorylation
		19.2 ATP Synthesis
			In the Chemiosmotic Model, Oxidation and Phosphorylation Are Obligately Coupled
			ATP Synthase Has Two Functional Domains, F[0] and F[1]
			ATP Is Stabilized Relative to ADP on the Surface of F[1]
			The Proton Gradient Drives the Release of ATP from the Enzyme Surface
			Each β Subunit of ATP Synthase Can Assume Three Different Conformations
			Rotational Catalysis Is Key to the Binding-Change Mechanism for ATP Synthesis
			Chemiosmotic Coupling Allows Nonintegral Stoichiometries of O[2] Consumption and ATP Synthesis
			The Proton-Motive Force Energizes Active Transport
			Shuttle Systems Indirectly Convey Cytosolic NADH into Mitochondria for Oxidation
		19.3 Regulation of Oxidative Phosphorylation
			Oxidative Phosphorylation Is Regulated by Cellular Energy Needs
			An Inhibitory Protein Prevents ATP Hydrolysis during Hypoxia
			Hypoxia Leads to ROS Production and Several Adaptive Responses
			ATP-Producing Pathways Are Coordinately Regulated
		19.4 Mitochondria in Thermogenesis, Steroid Synthesis, and Apoptosis
			Uncoupled Mitochondria in Brown Adipose Tissue Produce Heat
			Mitochondrial P-450 Monooxygenases Catalyze Steroid Hydroxylations
			Mitochondria Are Central to the Initiation of Apoptosis
		19.5 Mitochondrial Genes: Their Origin and the Effects of Mutations
			Mitochondria Evolved from Endosymbiotic Bacteria
			Mutations in Mitochondrial DNA Accumulate throughout the Life of the Organism
			Some Mutations in Mitochondrial Genomes Cause Disease
			A Rare Form of Diabetes Results from Defects in the Mitochondria of Pancreatic β Cells
		Chapter Review
			Key Terms
			Problems
	Chapter 20 Photosynthesis and Carbohydrate Synthesis in Plants
		20.1 Light Absorption
			Chloroplasts Are the Site of Light-Driven Electron Flow and Photosynthesis in Plants
			Chlorophylls Absorb Light Energy for Photosynthesis
			Chlorophylls Funnel Absorbed Energy to Reaction Centers by Exciton Transfer
		20.2 Photochemical Reaction Centers
			Photosynthetic Bacteria Have Two Types of Reaction Center
			In Vascular Plants, Two Reaction Centers Act in Tandem
			The Cytochrome b[6]f Complex Links Photosystems II and I, Conserving the Energy of Electron Transfer
			Cyclic Electron Transfer Allows Variation in the Ratio of ATP/NADPH Synthesized
			State Transitions Change the Distribution of LHCII between the Two Photosystems
			Water Is Split at the Oxygen-Evolving Center
		20.3 Evolution of a Universal Mechanism for ATP Synthesis
			A Proton Gradient Couples Electron Flow and Phosphorylation
			The Approximate Stoichiometry of Photophosphorylation Has Been Established
			The ATP Synthase Structure and Mechanism Are Nearly Universal
		20.4 CO[2]-Assimilation Reactions
			Carbon Dioxide Assimilation Occurs in Three Stages
			Synthesis of Each Triose Phosphate from CO[2] Requires Six NADPH and Nine ATP
			A Transport System Exports Triose Phosphates from the Chloroplast and Imports Phosphate
			Four Enzymes of the Calvin Cycle Are Indirectly Activated by Light
		20.5 Photorespiration and the C[4] and CAM Pathways
			Photorespiration Results from Rubisco’s Oxygenase Activity
			Phosphoglycolate Is Salvaged in a Costly Set of Reactions in C[3] Plants
			In C[4] Plants, CO[2] Fixation and Rubisco Activity Are Spatially Separated
			In CAM Plants, CO[2] Capture and Rubisco Action Are Temporally Separated
		20.6 Biosynthesis of Starch, Sucrose, and Cellulose
			ADP-Glucose Is the Substrate for Starch Synthesis in Plant Plastids and for Glycogen Synthesis in Bacteria
			UDP-Glucose Is the Substrate for Sucrose Synthesis in the Cytosol of Leaf Cells
			Conversion of Triose Phosphates to Sucrose and Starch Is Tightly Regulated
			The Glyoxylate Cycle and Gluconeogenesis Produce Glucose in Germinating Seeds
			Cellulose Is Synthesized by Supramolecular Structures in the Plasma Membrane
			Pools of Common Intermediates Link Pathways in Different Organelles
		Chapter Review
			Key Terms
			Problems
	Chapter 21 Lipid Biosynthesis
		21.1 Biosynthesis of Fatty Acids and Eicosanoids
			Malonyl-CoA Is Formed from Acetyl-CoA and Bicarbonate
			Fatty Acid Synthesis Proceeds in a Repeating Reaction Sequence
			The Mammalian Fatty Acid Synthase Has Multiple Active Sites
			Fatty Acid Synthase Receives the Acetyl and Malonyl Groups
			The Fatty Acid Synthase Reactions Are Repeated to Form Palmitate
			Fatty Acid Synthesis Is a Cytosolic Process in Most Eukaryotes but Takes Place in the Chloroplasts in Plants
			Acetate Is Shuttled out of Mitochondria as Citrate
			Fatty Acid Biosynthesis Is Tightly Regulated
			Long-Chain Saturated Fatty Acids Are Synthesized from Palmitate
			Desaturation of Fatty Acids Requires a Mixed-Function Oxidase
			Eicosanoids Are Formed from 20- and 22-Carbon Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
		21.2 Biosynthesis of Triacylglycerols
			Triacylglycerols and Glycerophospholipids Are Synthesized from the Same Precursors
			Triacylglycerol Biosynthesis in Animals Is Regulated by Hormones
			Adipose Tissue Generates Glycerol 3-Phosphate by Glyceroneogenesis
			Thiazolidinediones Treat Type 2 Diabetes by Increasing Glyceroneogenesis
		21.3 Biosynthesis of Membrane Phospholipids
			Cells Have Two Strategies for Attaching Phospholipid Head Groups
			Pathways for Phospholipid Biosynthesis Are Interrelated
			Eukaryotic Membrane Phospholipids Are Subject to Remodeling
			Plasmalogen Synthesis Requires Formation of an Ether-Linked Fatty Alcohol
			Sphingolipid and Glycerophospholipid Synthesis Share Precursors and Some Mechanisms
			Polar Lipids Are Targeted to Specific Cellular Membranes
		21.4 Cholesterol, Steroids, and Isoprenoids: Biosynthesis, Regulation, and Transport
			Cholesterol Is Made from Acetyl-CoA in Four Stages
			Cholesterol Has Several Fates
			Cholesterol and Other Lipids Are Carried on Plasma Lipoproteins
			HDL Carries Out Reverse Cholesterol Transport
			Cholesteryl Esters Enter Cells by Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
			Cholesterol Synthesis and Transport Are Regulated at Several Levels
			Dysregulation of Cholesterol Metabolism Can Lead to Cardiovascular Disease
			Reverse Cholesterol Transport by HDL Counters Plaque Formation and Atherosclerosis
			Steroid Hormones Are Formed by Side-Chain Cleavage and Oxidation of Cholesterol
			Intermediates in Cholesterol Biosynthesis Have Many Alternative Fates
		Chapter Review
			Key Terms
			Problems
	Chapter 22 Biosynthesis of Amino Acids, Nucleotides, and Related Molecules
		22.1 Overview of Nitrogen Metabolism
			A Global Nitrogen Cycling Network Maintains a Pool of Biologically Available Nitrogen
			Nitrogen Is Fixed by Enzymes of the Nitrogenase Complex
			Ammonia Is Incorporated into Biomolecules through Glutamate and Glutamine
			Glutamine Synthetase Is a Primary Regulatory Point in Nitrogen Metabolism
			Several Classes of Reactions Play Special Roles in the Biosynthesis of Amino Acids and Nucleotides
		22.2 Biosynthesis of Amino Acids
			Organisms Vary Greatly in Their Ability to Synthesize the 20 Common Amino Acids
			α-Ketoglutarate Gives Rise to Glutamate, Glutamine, Proline, and Arginine
			Serine, Glycine, and Cysteine Are Derived from 3-Phosphoglycerate
			Three Nonessential and Six Essential Amino Acids Are Synthesized from Oxaloacetate and Pyruvate
			Chorismate Is a Key Intermediate in the Synthesis of Tryptophan, Phenylalanine, and Tyrosine
			Histidine Biosynthesis Uses Precursors of Purine Biosynthesis
			Amino Acid Biosynthesis Is under Allosteric Regulation
		22.3 Molecules Derived from Amino Acids
			Glycine Is a Precursor of Porphyrins
			Heme Degradation Has Multiple Functions
			Amino Acids Are Precursors of Creatine and Glutathione
			d-Amino Acids Are Found Primarily in Bacteria
			Aromatic Amino Acids Are Precursors of Many Plant Substances
			Biological Amines Are Products of Amino Acid Decarboxylation
			Arginine Is the Precursor for Biological Synthesis of Nitric Oxide
		22.4 Biosynthesis and Degradation of Nucleotides
			De Novo Purine Nucleotide Synthesis Begins with PRPP
			Purine Nucleotide Biosynthesis Is Regulated by Feedback Inhibition
			Pyrimidine Nucleotides Are Made from Aspartate, PRPP, and Carbamoyl Phosphate
			Pyrimidine Nucleotide Biosynthesis Is Regulated by Feedback Inhibition
			Nucleoside Monophosphates Are Converted to Nucleoside Triphosphates
			Ribonucleotides Are the Precursors of Deoxyribonucleotides
			Thymidylate Is Derived from dCDP and dUMP
			Degradation of Purines and Pyrimidines Produces Uric Acid and Urea, Respectively
			Purine and Pyrimidine Bases Are Recycled by Salvage Pathways
			Excess Uric Acid Causes Gout
			Many Chemotherapeutic Agents Target Enzymes in Nucleotide Biosynthetic Pathways
		Chapter Review
			Key Terms
			Problems
	Chapter 23 Hormonal Regulation and Integration of Mammalian Metabolism
		23.1 Hormone Structure and Action
			Hormones Act through Specific High-Affinity Cellular Receptors
			Hormones Are Chemically Diverse
			Some Hormones Are Released by a “Top-Down” Hierarchy of Neuronal and Hormonal Signals
			“Bottom-Up” Hormonal Systems Send Signals Back to the Brain and to Other Tissues
		23.2 Tissue-Specific Metabolism
			The Liver Processes and Distributes Nutrients
			Adipose Tissues Store and Supply Fatty Acids
			Brown and Beige Adipose Tissues Are Thermogenic
			Muscles Use ATP for Mechanical Work
			The Brain Uses Energy for Transmission of Electrical Impulses
			Blood Carries Oxygen, Metabolites, and Hormones
		23.3 Hormonal Regulation of Fuel Metabolism
			Insulin Counters High Blood Glucose in the Well-Fed State
			Pancreatic β Cells Secrete Insulin in Response to Changes in Blood Glucose
			Glucagon Counters Low Blood Glucose
			During Fasting and Starvation, Metabolism Shifts to Provide Fuel for the Brain
			Epinephrine Signals Impending Activity
			Cortisol Signals Stress, Including Low Blood Glucose
		23.4 Obesity and the Regulation of Body Mass
			Adipose Tissue Has Important Endocrine Functions
			Leptin Stimulates Production of Anorexigenic Peptide Hormones
			Leptin Triggers a Signaling Cascade That Regulates Gene Expression
			Adiponectin Acts through AMPK to Increase Insulin Sensitivity
			AMPK Coordinates Catabolism and Anabolism in Response to Metabolic Stress
			The mTORC1 Pathway Coordinates Cell Growth with the Supply of Nutrients and Energy
			Diet Regulates the Expression of Genes Central to Maintaining Body Mass
			Short-Term Eating Behavior Is Influenced by Ghrelin, PPY3–36, and Cannabinoids
			Microbial Symbionts in the Gut Influence Energy Metabolism and Adipogenesis
		23.5 Diabetes Mellitus
			Diabetes Mellitus Arises from Defects in Insulin Production or Action
			Carboxylic Acids (Ketone Bodies) Accumulate in the Blood of Those with Untreated Diabetes
			In Type 2 Diabetes the Tissues Become Insensitive to Insulin
			Type 2 Diabetes Is Managed with Diet, Exercise, Medication, and Surgery
		Chapter Review
			Key Terms
			Problems
Part III Information Pathways
	Chapter 24 Genes and Chromosomes
		24.1 Chromosomal Elements
			Genes Are Segments of DNA That Code for Polypeptide Chains and RNAs
			DNA Molecules Are Much Longer than the Cellular or Viral Packages That Contain Them
			Eukaryotic Genes and Chromosomes Are Very Complex
		24.2 DNA Supercoiling
			Most Cellular DNA Is Underwound
			DNA Underwinding Is Defined by Topological Linking Number
			Topoisomerases Catalyze Changes in the Linking Number of DNA
			DNA Compaction Requires a Special Form of Supercoiling
		24.3 The Structure of Chromosomes
			Chromatin Consists of DNA, Proteins, and RNA
			Histones Are Small, Basic Proteins
			Nucleosomes Are the Fundamental Organizational Units of Chromatin
			Nucleosomes Are Packed into Highly Condensed Chromosome Structures
			Condensed Chromosome Structures Are Maintained by SMC Proteins
			Bacterial DNA Is Also Highly Organized
		Chapter Review
			Key Terms
			Problems
	Chapter 25 DNA Metabolism
		25.1 DNA Replication
			DNA Replication Follows a Set of Fundamental Rules
			DNA Is Degraded by Nucleases
			DNA Is Synthesized by DNA Polymerases
			Replication Is Very Accurate
			E. coli Has at Least Five DNA Polymerases
			DNA Replication Requires Many Enzymes and Protein Factors
			Replication of the E. coli Chromosome Proceeds in Stages
			Replication in Eukaryotic Cells Is Similar but More Complex
			Viral DNA Polymerases Provide Targets for Antiviral Therapy
		25.2 DNA Repair
			Mutations Are Linked to Cancer
			All Cells Have Multiple DNA Repair Systems
			The Interaction of Replication Forks with DNA Damage Can Lead to Error-Prone Translesion DNA Synthesis
		25.3 DNA Recombination
			Bacterial Homologous Recombination Is a DNA Repair Function
			Eukaryotic Homologous Recombination Is Required for Proper Chromosome Segregation during Meiosis
			Some Double-Strand Breaks Are Repaired by Nonhomologous End Joining
			Site-Specific Recombination Results in Precise DNA Rearrangements
			Transposable Genetic Elements Move from One Location to Another
			Immunoglobulin Genes Assemble by Recombination
		Chapter Review
			Key Terms
			Problems
	Chapter 26 RNA Metabolism
		26.1 DNA-Dependent Synthesis of RNA
			RNA Is Synthesized by RNA Polymerases
			RNA Synthesis Begins at Promoters
			Transcription Is Regulated at Several Levels
			Specific Sequences Signal Termination of RNA Synthesis
			Eukaryotic Cells Have Three Kinds of Nuclear RNA Polymerases
			RNA Polymerase II Requires Many Other Protein Factors for Its Activity
			RNA Polymerases Are Drug Targets
		26.2 RNA Processing
			Eukaryotic mRNAs Are Capped at the 5′ End
			Both Introns and Exons Are Transcribed from DNA into RNA
			RNA Catalyzes the Splicing of Introns
			In Eukaryotes the Spliceosome Carries out Nuclear pre-mRNA Splicing
			Proteins Catalyze Splicing of tRNAs
			Eukaryotic mRNAs Have a Distinctive 3′ End Structure
			A Gene Can Give Rise to Multiple Products by Differential RNA Processing
			Ribosomal RNAs and tRNAs Also Undergo Processing
			Special-Function RNAs Undergo Several Types of Processing
			Cellular mRNAs Are Degraded at Different Rates
		26.3 RNA-Dependent Synthesis of RNA and DNA
			Reverse Transcriptase Produces DNA from Viral RNA
			Some Retroviruses Cause Cancer and AIDS
			Many Transposons, Retroviruses, and Introns May Have a Common Evolutionary Origin
			Telomerase Is a Specialized Reverse Transcriptase
			Some RNAs Are Replicated by RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase
			RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerases Share a Common Structural Fold
		26.4 Catalytic RNAs and the RNA World Hypothesis
			Ribozymes Share Features with Protein Enzymes
			Ribozymes Participate in a Variety of Biological Processes
			Ribozymes Provide Clues to the Origin of Life in an RNA World
		Chapter Review
			Key Terms
			Problems
	Chapter 27 Protein Metabolism
		27.1 The Genetic Code
			The Genetic Code Was Cracked Using Artificial mRNA Templates
			Wobble Allows Some tRNAs to Recognize More than One Codon
			The Genetic Code Is Mutation-Resistant
			Translational Frameshifting Affects How the Code Is Read
			Some mRNAs Are Edited before Translation
		27.2 Protein Synthesis
			The Ribosome Is a Complex Supramolecular Machine
			Transfer RNAs Have Characteristic Structural Features
			Stage 1: Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases Attach the Correct Amino Acids to Their tRNAs
			Stage 2: A Specific Amino Acid Initiates Protein Synthesis
			Stage 3: Peptide Bonds Are Formed in the Elongation Stage
			Stage 4: Termination of Polypeptide Synthesis Requires a Special Signal
			Stage 5: Newly Synthesized Polypeptide Chains Undergo Folding and Processing
			Protein Synthesis Is Inhibited by Many Antibiotics and Toxins
		27.3 Protein Targeting and Degradation
			Posttranslational Modification of Many Eukaryotic Proteins Begins in the Endoplasmic Reticulum
			Glycosylation Plays a Key Role in Protein Targeting
			Signal Sequences for Nuclear Transport Are Not Cleaved
			Bacteria Also Use Signal Sequences for Protein Targeting
			Cells Import Proteins by Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
			Protein Degradation Is Mediated by Specialized Systems in All Cells
		Chapter Review
			Key Terms
			Problems
	Chapter 28 Regulation of Gene Expression
		28.1 The Proteins and RNAs of Gene Regulation
			RNA Polymerase Binds to DNA at Promoters
			Transcription Initiation Is Regulated by Proteins and RNAs
			Many Bacterial Genes Are Clustered and Regulated in Operons
			The lac Operon Is Subject to Negative Regulation
			Regulatory Proteins Have Discrete DNA-Binding Domains
			Regulatory Proteins Also Have Protein-Protein Interaction Domains
		28.2 Regulation of Gene Expression in Bacteria
			The lac Operon Undergoes Positive Regulation
			Many Genes for Amino Acid Biosynthetic Enzymes Are Regulated by Transcription Attenuation
			Induction of the SOS Response Requires Destruction of Repressor Proteins
			Synthesis of Ribosomal Proteins Is Coordinated with rRNA Synthesis
			The Function of Some mRNAs Is Regulated by Small RNAs in Cis or in Trans
			Some Genes Are Regulated by Genetic Recombination
		28.3 Regulation of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes
			Transcriptionally Active Chromatin Is Structurally Distinct from Inactive Chromatin
			Most Eukaryotic Promoters Are Positively Regulated
			DNA-Binding Activators and Coactivators Facilitate Assembly of the Basal Transcription Factors
			The Genes of Galactose Metabolism in Yeast Are Subject to Both Positive and Negative Regulation
			Transcription Activators Have a Modular Structure
			Eukaryotic Gene Expression Can Be Regulated by Intercellular and Intracellular Signals
			Regulation Can Result from Phosphorylation of Nuclear Transcription Factors
			Many Eukaryotic mRNAs Are Subject to Translational Repression
			Posttranscriptional Gene Silencing Is Mediated by RNA Interference
			RNA-Mediated Regulation of Gene Expression Takes Many Forms in Eukaryotes
			Development Is Controlled by Cascades of Regulatory Proteins
			Stem Cells Have Developmental Potential That Can Be Controlled
		Chapter Review
			Key Terms
			Problems
Note
Abbreviated Solutions to Problems
Glossary
Index
Resources
Back Cover
Copyright
Title Page
Dedication
Contents
Chapter 1: ‘I’m thinking’ – Oh, but are you?
Chapter 2: Renegade perception
Chapter 3: The Pushbacker sting
Chapter 4: ‘Covid’: The calculated catastrophe
Chapter 5: There is no ‘virus’
Chapter 6: Sequence of deceit
Chapter 7: War on your mind
Chapter 8: ‘Reframing’ insanity
Chapter 9: We must have it? So what is it?
Chapter 10: Human 2.0
Chapter 11: Who controls the Cult?
Chapter 12: Escaping Wetiko
Postscript
Appendix: Cowan-Kaufman-Morell Statement on Virus Isolation
Bibliography
Index
Copyright
Title Page
Dedication
Contents
Chapter 1: ‘I’m thinking’ – Oh, but are you?
Chapter 2: Renegade perception
Chapter 3: The Pushbacker sting
Chapter 4: ‘Covid’: The calculated catastrophe
Chapter 5: There is no ‘virus’
Chapter 6: Sequence of deceit
Chapter 7: War on your mind
Chapter 8: ‘Reframing’ insanity
Chapter 9: We must have it? So what is it?
Chapter 10: Human 2.0
Chapter 11: Who controls the Cult?
Chapter 12: Escaping Wetiko
Postscript
Appendix: Cowan-Kaufman-Morell Statement on Virus Isolation
Bibliography
Index