Learning and memory / 1. Learning theory and behaviour

Permission Acknowledgement, Page xxi.pdf......Page 0
Biology of Learning and Memory: The Value of a Comparative Approach......Page 8
Theories, Processes, and Mechanisms......Page 11
What Is Memory and What Is a Memory Trace?......Page 12
The Engineer’s Approach to Learning and Memory......Page 14
References......Page 15
Introduction......Page 17
Explicit and Implicit Memory......Page 18
Conscious and Unconscious Forms of Memory......Page 19
Intentional and incidental retrieval......Page 20
Declarative and Nondeclarative Memory......Page 21
Sensory Memories......Page 22
Working Memory......Page 23
Varieties of Long-Term Memory......Page 24
Skill learning......Page 25
Autobiographical memory......Page 26
Semantic memory......Page 27
Collective memory......Page 28
References......Page 29
Instrumental Learning Historically and Today......Page 31
Misbehavior......Page 33
Thorndike......Page 34
Skinner......Page 35
Types of Instrumental Behavior......Page 36
Need Reduction......Page 37
Discriminative Stimuli......Page 38
Configural Cues......Page 39
Reinforcement-Produced Stimuli (Pavlovian Version)......Page 40
Stimulus Process Models......Page 41
Characterizing the Response......Page 42
R-O Association......Page 43
References......Page 44
Introduction......Page 46
What Is a Memory, and a Memory System?......Page 47
What Is Memory, Redux......Page 49
Multiple Knowledge Systems......Page 50
Knowing where......Page 51
Knowing valence......Page 52
The Development of Knowledge Systems......Page 53
The Delayed Emergence of Episodic Memory......Page 54
The Impact of Stress......Page 55
References......Page 56
Retrieval from Memory......Page 58
Changes in the Organism’s Internal State......Page 59
Experimentally Induced Amnesias......Page 61
Reconsolidation......Page 62
Cue Competition and Outcome Competition......Page 63
Interference between Cues and Outcomes Trained Apart......Page 64
Matching of Information as Critical for the Retrieval from Memory......Page 67
The Comparator Hypothesis: A Retrieval-Focused View of Cue Competition......Page 68
Bouton’s Retrieval Model of Outcome Interference......Page 71
Neurobiology of Retrieval......Page 73
Acknowledgments......Page 75
References......Page 76
Operant Conditioning......Page 79
Nonoperant Effects in Operant Conditioning......Page 81
Determinants of Operant Learning......Page 84
Basic Facts......Page 85
Scalar Expectancy Theory......Page 86
Beyond Psychophysics......Page 91
The Matching Law......Page 93
The Structure of Choice......Page 94
Local and Global Control of Behavior in Concurrent Schedules......Page 95
Primary Reinforcement......Page 96
Conditioned Reinforcement......Page 98
Conclusion......Page 100
References......Page 101
Phenomena......Page 106
Simple Sensory Thresholds......Page 107
More Complex Stimuli......Page 108
Categorization......Page 109
Taste and Smell......Page 110
Acquired Distinctiveness......Page 111
Theoretical Issues......Page 113
Acquired Distinctiveness and Acquired Equivalence......Page 114
Unitization......Page 116
Associative Inhibition......Page 117
Attentional Learning Processes......Page 119
Latent Inhibition and Associability Modulation......Page 120
Habituation and Salience Modulation......Page 121
Conclusions......Page 122
References......Page 123
Introduction......Page 125
Discrimination Learning......Page 126
Stimulus generalization: immediate, specific transfer......Page 128
Other types of transfer......Page 130
Immediate, nonspecific transfer......Page 131
Learning to learn: latent, nonspecific transfer......Page 132
Absolute thresholds......Page 134
Psychophysics of Memory......Page 136
Psychophysics of Time......Page 137
Transfer Tests of Inhibition......Page 138
Generalization after Discrimination Training......Page 140
Inhibition and Nonassociative Contributions to Responding......Page 141
Compound versus element discriminations......Page 142
Feature-negative and feature-positive discriminations......Page 143
Serial conditional discriminations......Page 144
Compound and element testing......Page 145
Sequential effects......Page 146
Differential outcomes effect......Page 147
References......Page 148
Extinction: Behavioral Mechanisms and Their Implications......Page 152
Renewal......Page 153
Spontaneous Recovery......Page 155
Rapid Reacquisition......Page 156
Resurgence......Page 157
Concurrent Recovery......Page 158
Discrimination of Reinforcement Rate......Page 159
Generalization Decrement......Page 160
Inhibition of the Response......Page 161
Violation of Reinforcer Expectation......Page 162
Other Behavioral Techniques to Optimize Extinction Learning......Page 164
Chemical Adjuncts......Page 165
Conclusions......Page 167
References......Page 168
Thorndike and the Law of Effect......Page 173
Operant Behavior: Goal Directed versus Habitual......Page 175
Outcome devaluation......Page 176
Manipulations of the R-O contingency......Page 178
Intentional Psychology: Beliefs and Desires......Page 179
Animals as Free Agents......Page 181
Making Things Happen......Page 182
Seeing versus Doing......Page 183
Seeing versus doing in children......Page 184
Seeing versus doing in rats......Page 185
Tool Use: From Crow to Cro-Magnon......Page 187
Tool Use in Primates......Page 188
Tool Use in Corvids......Page 189
Tool Use by Humankind......Page 191
References......Page 193
Introduction and Theoretical Distinctions......Page 196
Operational Definitions of Category and Concept......Page 197
History of Animal Categorization Research: Herrnstein’s Studies......Page 198
Further Research on Basic-Level Categorization......Page 200
Do Animals Perceive the Cohesiveness of Basic-Level Categories?......Page 206
Artificial Polymorphous Categories as Models of Basic-Level Categories......Page 207
Perceptual Concepts as Subordinate-Level Categories......Page 208
Nonsimilarity-Based Concepts as Superordinate-Level Categories......Page 209
Nonsimilarity-Based Concepts as Equivalence Classes......Page 211
Concept of Number......Page 213
Relational Concepts in the Transposition Paradigm......Page 216
Concept of Identity......Page 217
Relations Among Relations......Page 218
Conclusion: What Does It All Mean?......Page 220
References......Page 221
Learning and Representation......Page 226
Representations: Definition and Explication......Page 227
Dead Reckoning......Page 229
Learning the Solar Ephemeris......Page 230
The Cognitive Map......Page 232
The Representation of Past Episodes......Page 235
Implications for Neurobiology......Page 236
References......Page 239
Behavioral Evidence for Early Selection......Page 242
Behavioral Evidence for Late Selection......Page 245
Audition......Page 248
Vision......Page 249
Implications for the Early versus Late Debate......Page 250
Possible Resolutions to the Debate......Page 251
Working Memory and the Locus of Selection......Page 252
Summary......Page 253
References......Page 254
Introduction......Page 257
Do Medial Temporal Lobe Structures Have Dissociable Roles?......Page 259
Point: The Hippocampus Supports Mnemonic Functions That Are Independent of Those Mediated by Adjacent Neocortical Regions......Page 261
Counterpoint: The Hippocampus and Surrounding Cortices Support Both Item and Relational Memory......Page 265
The Role of the Perirhinal Cortex in Object Memory and Object Perception......Page 267
Point: The Perirhinal Cortex Supports Visual Perception......Page 268
Counterpoint: The Perirhinal Cortex Supports Memory but Not Perception......Page 270
Retrieval of Autobiographical Memories in Amnesia......Page 271
Point: Retrieval of Remote Autobiographical Memories Does Not Require the Medial Temporal Lobe......Page 273
Counterpoint: Medial Temporal Lobe Structures Are Required for Retrieval of Autobiographical Memories from All Time Periods......Page 275
References......Page 277
Introduction......Page 284
Neurobiological Factors......Page 285
Nonhuman Animal Populations......Page 286
Human Populations......Page 288
Conclusions......Page 290
References......Page 292
Introduction......Page 295
Definition......Page 296
Recent Advances......Page 297
Referential Signaling......Page 298
Vocal Production......Page 299
Neural Control of Vocalizations......Page 300
Gestures......Page 301
Intentional Signaling......Page 302
Imitation......Page 303
Teaching......Page 305
Conclusions......Page 306
References......Page 307
Introduction......Page 310
Special Brain Mechanisms......Page 311
Sensitive Periods for Learning......Page 312
The Ontogeny of Learned Song......Page 313
Overproduction, Attrition, and Action-Based Learning......Page 314
Effects of Isolation and Deafness......Page 315
Learning Preferences......Page 316
The Role of Innate Knowledge in Song Development......Page 317
Song Development as a Creative Process......Page 318
References......Page 319
Introduction......Page 321
Biological Constraints on Learning......Page 322
Constraints on the conditioning of avoidance learning......Page 323
Long-delay taste-aversion learning......Page 324
Biological Constraints......Page 325
Preparedness......Page 326
Behavior Systems and Learning......Page 327
Natural Learning Paradigms......Page 328
Special Properties of Naturalistic Learning......Page 329
Conclusion......Page 331
References......Page 332
Interval Timing in Everyday Life......Page 335
Bisection Task......Page 337
Peak Procedure......Page 339
Generalization......Page 340
Theories of Interval Timing......Page 341
Scalar Expectancy Theory......Page 342
Timing Without a Clock......Page 343
Packet Theory......Page 344
Formal Properties of Interval and Circadian Timing......Page 345
Resetting Properties of Short-Interval Timing......Page 346
Endogenous Oscillations in Short-Interval Timing......Page 347
Timing Long Intervals......Page 348
Endogenous Oscillations in Long-Interval Timing......Page 349
Variance Properties in Circadian and Short-Interval Timing......Page 352
Integration of Interval and Circadian Timing......Page 353
Conclusions......Page 355
References......Page 356
Introduction......Page 358
Foraging Basics......Page 359
Prey Choice......Page 360
Patch Exploitation......Page 361
General Principles and Conclusions......Page 364
The Value of Information......Page 365
Tracking......Page 366
Optimal Memory......Page 367
How Learning Constrains Foraging......Page 368
Learning to handle prey......Page 369
Foraging and Predator Avoidance......Page 370
Learning about predators......Page 371
Group size......Page 372
Social information use......Page 373
Intelligence, foraging, and sociality......Page 374
References......Page 375
Navigation......Page 377
Path integration......Page 378
Neural Basis of Navigation......Page 379
Anatomy of the hippocampal memory system......Page 380
Evidence from rodent studies......Page 381
Electrophysiological evidence supporting the cognitive map theory......Page 384
Processing of spatial information in other brain regions......Page 385
Guidances and orientations......Page 386
Navigation by piloting to landmarks does not always require a cognitive map, and navigation reflecting the use of a cognitive map does not always require the hippocampus......Page 387
Conclusions......Page 388
Modern taxonomy of memory systems......Page 389
Episodic and semantic memory......Page 390
Evidence from human studies......Page 391
Episodic memories are acquired in a single experience......Page 392
What-where-when......Page 393
Context in which experiences occur......Page 394
Disambiguating learned sequences of events......Page 395
Coding of specific events or experiences in their context......Page 398
Coding of episodes as sequences of events......Page 400
Disambiguating and linking distinct episodic memories......Page 401
Reconciling the Role of the Hippocampus in Navigation and Episodic Memory......Page 402
Cognitive Maps as Semantic Knowledge Structures Extracted from Individual Episodic Memories......Page 403
References......Page 404
Introduction......Page 410
The Natural History of Food Storage......Page 411
Experimental Evidence for Spatial Memory......Page 412
Memory duration......Page 413
Proactive and retroactive interference......Page 414
Coding of Cache Site Locations......Page 415
Landmark use during the recovery of stored food......Page 416
Landmarks and the coding of spatial locations......Page 417
Cache-Site Memory......Page 419
One-trial associative tasks......Page 420
Open-room radial maze......Page 421
Operant tasks......Page 422
The Hippocampus in Food-Storing Birds......Page 423
Experience, Seasonality, and Neurogenesis in Birds......Page 424
Role of the Hippocampus in Mammals......Page 425
Cognitive Pleiotropy......Page 426
References......Page 427
Introduction......Page 431
Animal Studies......Page 432
The Critical Components of Episodic-Like Memory......Page 433
The what-where-and-when memories of food-caching Western scrub-jays......Page 434
Evidence of what-where-and-when memories in other animals......Page 435
Challenging the ‘‘when’’ component......Page 438
Differential forgetting or remembrance of times past?......Page 439
The Structural Criterion of Episodic-Like Memories: An Integrated Representation......Page 440
The Flexibility Criterion......Page 442
Incidental and Automatic Encoding......Page 443
The Distribution and Evolution of Episodic Memory......Page 445
References......Page 447
Historical Background: Thinking About Memory......Page 450
Challenges to the Consolidation Hypothesis......Page 451
Amnesia and Forgetting As Retrieval Failure......Page 452
Seminal Studies by Donald Lewis......Page 453
Cue-Dependent Amnesia: Neurobiological Hypotheses......Page 454
Role of the Noradrenergic System......Page 455
Neurobiological Substrates and Boundaries of Reconsolidation......Page 456
Permanence of cue-dependent amnesia?......Page 457
Task- and species-related boundaries......Page 458
Enhancement by MRF stimulation......Page 459
Enhancement by activation of the noradrenergic system......Page 460
New Look at Retrieval and \'Reconsolidation’......Page 461
References......Page 462
Introduction......Page 465
Chemical......Page 466
Mechanosensory......Page 467
Mechanosensory and combined modalities......Page 468
What is the information content of the honeybee waggle dance?......Page 470
Typology......Page 473
Navigation in Desert Ants......Page 474
Navigation in Honeybees......Page 476
Memory structure......Page 479
Insect Migrations......Page 481
References......Page 482
Spatial Cognition in Fish: Observations in the Natural Environment......Page 487
Exploration and Environment Investigation......Page 489
Spatial Learning in Fish: Cues and Strategies......Page 490
Separating Egocentric and Allocentric Navigation......Page 492
Map-like Memory Representations of the Environmental Space......Page 497
Neural Basis of Spatial Cognition in Teleost Fish......Page 499
Teleost Fish Telencephalon and Spatial Cognition......Page 500
Telencephalic Hippocampal Pallium and Map-like Memories in Teleost Fish......Page 502
Neural Mechanisms for Egocentrically Referenced Spatial Orientation......Page 505
References......Page 509
Memory Consolidation after Training and Retrieval......Page 516
Reconsolidation in Limax flavus......Page 518
The Pond Snail Lymnaea stagnalis......Page 519
A long-term memory for the tactile stimulus is already formed after 4h......Page 520
The neuronal network underlying the aerial respiration paradigm......Page 521
Reconsolidation in the aerial respiration paradigm......Page 522
Reconsolidation in the appetitive chemosensory conditioning paradigm......Page 523
Reconsolidation in Helix lucorum......Page 525
Learning about a visual danger stimulus (VDA) leads to an associative and a nonassociative memory component......Page 526
The duration of the reexposure defined by its offset is critical for reconsolidation to occur......Page 528
A consolidated LTM is formed after three CS-US pairings......Page 530
Retrieval of a consolidated olfactory LTM......Page 531
Conclusion......Page 532
References......Page 533
Neural Plasticity?......Page 536
Necessity of Neuronal Plasticity in the Mushroom Bodies......Page 538
Blocking Input to the Mushroom Body during Training......Page 539
A Memory Trace in the Projection Neurons and/or Antennal Lobes?......Page 540
Learned Visual Pattern Preference......Page 541
Assessing Gene Expression Patterns......Page 542
Memory Mapping Reveals Functional Architecture......Page 543
References......Page 544
Introduction......Page 547
Elemental and Nonelemental Forms of Associative Learning......Page 548
The Honeybee as a Natural Model for Studies on Learning and Memory......Page 549
Conditioning of the Approach Flight Toward a Visual Target in Free-Flying Bees......Page 550
Olfactory Conditioning of the Sting Extension Reflex in Harnessed Bees......Page 552
Elemental Color Learning and Memory in Free-Flying Honeybees......Page 553
Cellular Bases of Appetitive Olfactory Proboscis Extension Reflex Conditioning......Page 555
Elemental Aversive Learning in Bees......Page 558
Nonelemental Learning in Bees......Page 559
Categorization of Visual Stimuli......Page 562
Rule Learning......Page 564
Distributed Cognition in Honeybees......Page 566
References......Page 568
Model Circuits......Page 572
Lymnaea Feeding......Page 573
Nonassociative Learning: Habituation and Sensitization in the Gill-Siphon Withdrawal Reflex......Page 574
Habituation......Page 575
Sensitization......Page 576
Aversive Classical Conditioning of the Aplysia Gill-Siphon Withdrawal Reflex......Page 577
Aversive Classical Conditioning of Hermissenda Phototactic Behavior......Page 579
Aversive and Appetitive Conditioning of Chemosensory Responses in Terrestrial Slugs and Snails......Page 581
Reward Classical Conditioning of Lymnaea and Aplysia Feeding Behavior......Page 582
Aversive Operant Conditioning of Lymnaea Breathing Behavior......Page 585
Comparison of Nonsynaptic Electrical Mechanisms in Different Types of Molluscan Learning......Page 586
References......Page 587
An Historical Overview......Page 590
A Research Effort Lasting Over a Century......Page 591
The contribution of J. Z. Young......Page 592
The Breadth of the Studies on Octopus and Other Cephalopods......Page 593
General Organization of the Brain......Page 594
Tactile information......Page 596
How Computation in the Learning System Is Achieved......Page 597
Learning in Cephalopods......Page 599
Various Forms of Associative Learning......Page 601
Development of the Learning Capabilities......Page 602
Social learning......Page 603
Effect of Acclimatization: Contextual Learning......Page 604
Neophobia/Neophilia and the Shy-Bold Continuum......Page 605
Memory in Cephalopods......Page 606
References......Page 607
Introduction......Page 613
Mechanical Stimuli......Page 614
Context Conditioning for Habituation......Page 617
State-Dependent Learning......Page 618
Thermotaxis......Page 619
Predicting Harm......Page 621
Aversive Learning toward Pathogenic Food......Page 622
References......Page 623
Introduction......Page 625
Systems-level neurophysiology of the primate hippocampus......Page 626
Hippocampal circuitry......Page 628
Dentate granule cells......Page 629
Storage capacity......Page 632
Completion......Page 634
Continuous spatial patterns and CA3 representations......Page 635
Idiothetic update by path integration......Page 637
The dynamics of the recurrent network......Page 638
Mossy fiber inputs to the CA3 cells......Page 639
Perforant path inputs to CA3 cells......Page 640
Recoding in CA1 to facilitate retrieval to the neocortex......Page 641
Backprojections to the neocortex - a hypothesis......Page 642
Backprojections to the neocortex - quantitative aspects......Page 643
Comparison with Other Theories of Hippocampal Function......Page 644
Acknowledgments......Page 645
References......Page 646
Introduction......Page 650
Hebbian Learning......Page 651
Unsupervised Hebbian Learning......Page 652
Supervised Learning......Page 653
Reinforcement Learning......Page 655
Spike-Timing Dependent Plasticity......Page 656
Plasticity of Intrinsic Excitability......Page 658
Complexity of Learning......Page 659
References......Page 661
Introduction......Page 663
Connectionist Modeling of Hippocampal Episodic Memory......Page 664
Encoding and Retrieval of Items within a Context Cue Presented in Layer II of Entorhinal Cortex......Page 668
Dentate Gyrus: Generating Representations That Minimize Interference......Page 670
CA3: Forming Attractors and Associations between Attractors during Rhythmic Oscillation at Theta Frequency......Page 672
CA1: Comparing and Gating of Input from Region CA3 and Entorhinal Cortex......Page 674
Medial Septum: Feedback Regulation of Cholinergic Modulation and Selective Emphasis of Encoding or Retrieval......Page 675
The Hippocampal Model of Temporal Context-Dependent Episodic Memory......Page 676
References......Page 679
Introduction......Page 683
The Effect of Changes in Reward Value......Page 684
Incentive Learning and the Encoding of Reward Value......Page 686
Incentive Learning as an Emotional Process......Page 688
Retrieving Reward Value......Page 689
Secondary Reward......Page 690
Sensory Versus Secondary Reward......Page 691
Do Secondary Rewards Reward, Reinstate, or Reinforce?......Page 692
Pavlovian-Instrumental Interactions......Page 695
The Two-Process Account of Reward Value......Page 697
Summary and Conclusions......Page 700
References......Page 701
Introduction......Page 703
Spike Timing Synaptic Plasticity......Page 704
Evidence for Relations between Oscillatory Activity, Synaptic Plasticity, and Learning......Page 706
References......Page 708
Introduction......Page 711
Information Processing Theories......Page 712
Anatomical Data......Page 713
Two computational spaces......Page 715
Content of the global workspace......Page 716
Global modulation of workspace activation......Page 717
Spatiotemporal dynamics of workspace activity......Page 718
Long-range connections......Page 719
Minimal Models of Cognitive Architectures for Effortful Tasks......Page 720
States of Vigilance as Spontaneous Thalamocortical Rhythms and Their Brain Imaging......Page 721
Interactions between External Stimuli and Ongoing Spontaneous Activity: Facilitation versus Competition......Page 722
Competition between Sensory Stimuli for Access to Consciousness: Looking for Objective Records of Subjective Perception......Page 724
Preconscious States of Activity......Page 726
Performance of an Effortful Deduction Task: The Stroop Task......Page 727
Animal and Human Consciousness......Page 730
Minimal Consciousness in Mice and Rats......Page 731
The Neuronal Workspace and Human Pathologies......Page 733
References......Page 734
Editor-in-Chief......Page 2
Volume 4......Page 3
FOREWORD......Page 4
PREFACE......Page 5
Permission Acknowledgement......Page 7