Language Files: Materials for an Introduction to Language and Linguistics

Language Files: Materials for an Introduction to Language and Linguistics
Half Title Page
Editors of Previous Editions
Title Page
CONTENTS
Symbols Used Throughout the Book
PREFACE TO THE TWELFTH EDITION
	An Introduction to Language Files
	Changes in the Current Edition
	Further Resources for Using Language Files
	Contributors to the 12th Edition
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
CHAPTER 1: Introduction
	FILE 1.0: What Is Language?
		Contents
	FILE 1.1: Introducing the Study of Language
		1.1.1 Why Study Language?
		1.1.2 Some Surprising but True Things about Language
		1.1.3 Some Common Misconceptions about Language
		1.1.4 Underlying Themes of Linguistic Study
		1.1.5 How to Use This Book
	FILE 1.2: What You Know When You Know a Language
		1.2.1 Linguistic Competence and Linguistic Performance
		1.2.2 The Speech Communication Chain
		1.2.3 What You Know When You Know a Language
		1.2.4 How Your Linguistic Competence Is Stored
		1.2.5 Uncovering and Describing What You Know
	FILE 1.3: Other (Non-Essential) Aspects of Knowing a Language
		1.3.1 What Language Inherently Is and Is Not
		1.3.2 Writing Is Secondary to Speech (And Not Necessary for Knowledge of a Language)
		1.3.3 Language Is Not Prescriptive Grammar
	FILE 1.4: Design Features of Language
		1.4.1 How to Identify Language When We Come across It
		1.4.2 Mode of Communication
		1.4.3 Semanticity
		1.4.4 Pragmatic Function
		1.4.5 Interchangeability
		1.4.6 Cultural Transmission
		1.4.7 Arbitrariness
		1.4.8 Discreteness
		1.4.9 Displacement
		1.4.10 Productivity
		1.4.11 What the Design Features Tell Us, and What They Don’t Tell Us
	FILE 1.5: Language Modality
		1.5.1 Auditory-Vocal and Visual-Gestural Languages
		1.5.2 Some Common Misconceptions about Visual-Gestural Languages
		1.5.3 Who Uses Signed Languages?
		1.5.4 Representing Signs in a Two-Dimensional Format
		1.5.5 The Importance of Studying Different Modalities
	FILE 1.6: Practice
		File 1.1—Introducing the Study of Language
		File 1.2—What You Know When You Know a Language
		File 1.3—Other (Non-Essential) Aspects of Knowing a Language
		File 1.4—Design Features of Language
		File 1.5—Language Modality
		Further Readings
CHAPTER 2: Phonetics
	FILE 2.0: What Is Phonetics?
		Contents
	FILE 2.1: Representing Speech Sounds
		2.1.1 Studying Pronunciation
		2.1.2 The “Right” Phonetic Alphabet
		2.1.3 Types of Speech Sounds
		2.1.4 Phonetic Symbols for English
	FILE 2.2: Articulation: English Consonants
		2.2.1 Introducing Articulatory Phonetics
		2.2.2 Anatomy of Human Speech Production
		2.2.3 States of the Glottis: Voicing
		2.2.4 Place of Articulation
		2.2.5 Manner of Articulation
		2.2.6 Investigating Place and Manner of Articulation: Palatography
		2.2.7 The Consonant Chart
	FILE 2.3: Articulation: English Vowels
		2.3.1 Articulatory Properties of Vowels
		2.3.2 Tongue Height
		2.3.3 Tongue Advancement
		2.3.4 Lip Rounding
		2.3.5 Tenseness
		2.3.6 Describing Vowels: Diphthongs
		2.3.7 Investigating Vowel Articulations
	FILE 2.4: Beyond English: Speech Sounds of the World’s Languages
		2.4.1 Beyond English?
		2.4.2 Vowels
		2.4.3 Fricatives
		2.4.4 Filling in Other Blanks in the Consonant Chart
		2.4.5 Places of Articulation Not Used in English
		2.4.6 Manners of Articulation Not Used in English
	FILE 2.5: Suprasegmental Features
		2.5.1 Segmental vs. Suprasegmental Features
		2.5.2 Length
		2.5.3 Intonation
		2.5.4 Tone
		2.5.5 Stress
	FILE 2.6: Acoustic Phonetics
		2.6.1 Articulatory vs. Acoustic Phonetics
		2.6.2 Simple Sound Waves
		2.6.3 Complex Sound Waves
		2.6.4 Vowels
		2.6.5 Stops
		2.6.6 Fricatives
		2.6.7 Nasals, Liquids, and Glides
		2.6.8 Interpreting Spectrograms
	FILE 2.7: The Phonetics of Signed Languages
		2.7.1 Extending Phonetics to Signed Languages
		2.7.2 The Parameters of Articulation in Signed Languages
		2.7.3 Location
		2.7.4 Movement
		2.7.5 Handshape
		2.7.6 Orientation
		2.7.7 Non-Manual Markers
		2.7.8 Phonetic Inventories in Signed Languages
		2.7.9 Studying and Analyzing the Phonetics of Signed Languages
	FILE 2.8: Practice
		File 2.1—Representing Speech Sounds
		File 2.2—Articulation: English Consonants
		File 2.3—Articulation: English Vowels
		File 2.4—Beyond English: Speech Sounds of the World’s Languages
		File 2.5—Suprasegmental Features
		File 2.6—Acoustic Phonetics
		File 2.7—The Phonetics of Signed Languages
		Further Readings
CHAPTER 3: Phonology
	FILE 3.0: What Is Phonology?
		Contents
	FILE 3.1: Phonotactic Constraints and Foreign Accents
		3.1.1 Phonotactic Constraints
		3.1.2 Phonotactic Constraints in Signed Languages
		3.1.3 Foreign Accents
	FILE 3.2: Phonemes and Allophones
		3.2.1 Different Sounds Have Different Distributions
		3.2.2 Allophones and Phonemes
		3.2.3 Identifying Phonemes and Allophones: The Distribution of Speech Sounds
		3.2.4 Free Variation
	FILE 3.3: Phonological Rules
		3.3.1 Phonological Rules
		3.3.2 Natural Classes
		3.3.3 Types of Phonological Rules
		3.3.4 Multiple Rule Application
		3.3.5 Obligatory and Optional Rules
	FILE 3.4: Implicational Laws
		3.4.1 Recurring Phonological Patterns
		3.4.2 Sound Inventories
		3.4.3 Frequency and Distribution
		3.4.4 Acquisition of Sounds
		3.4.5 Sound Change
		3.4.6 Explaining Implicational Laws
	FILE 3.5: How to Solve Phonology Problems
		3.5.1 Goals of Phonemic Analysis
		3.5.2 How to Do a Phonemic Analysis
		3.5.3 Some Potential Trouble Spots
		3.5.4 Flowchart for Discovering the Distribution of Sounds
	FILE 3.6: Practice
		File 3.1—Phonotactic Constraints and Foreign Accents
		File 3.2—Phonemes and Allophones
		File 3.3—Phonological Rules
		File 3.4—Implicational Laws
		File 3.5—How to Solve Phonology Problems
		Further Readings
CHAPTER 4: Morphology
	FILE 4.0: What Is Morphology?
		Contents
	FILE 4.1: Words and Word Formation: The Nature of the Lexicon
		4.1.1 What Are Words Like?
		4.1.2 Derivation
		4.1.3 Inflection
		4.1.4 Some Notes about Morphemes
		4.1.5 Classifying Elements in Morphology
		4.1.6 Derived and Inflected Words in the Lexicon
	FILE 4.2: Morphological Processes
		4.2.1 The Processes of Forming Words
		4.2.2 Affixation
		4.2.3 Affixation in Signed Languages
		4.2.4 Compounding
		4.2.5 Reduplication
		4.2.6 Alternations
		4.2.7 Suppletion
	FILE 4.3: Morphological Types of Languages
		4.3.1 Classifying Languages by Morphological Type
		4.3.2 Analytic Languages
		4.3.3 Synthetic Languages
		4.3.4 The First Type of Synthetic Language: Agglutinating Languages
		4.3.5 The Second Type of Synthetic Language: Fusional Languages
		4.3.6 The Third Type of Synthetic Language: Polysynthetic Languages
	FILE 4.4: The Hierarchical Structure of Derived Words
		4.4.1 How Words Are Put Together
		4.4.2 Ambiguous Morphemes and Words
		4.4.3 Morphemes That Can Attach to More than One Lexical Category
	FILE 4.5: Morphological Analysis
		4.5.1 The Nature and Goals of Morphological Analysis
		4.5.2 Procedure for Performing Morphological Analysis
		4.5.3 Some Cautionary Notes
	FILE 4.6: Practice
		File 4.1—Words and Word Formation: The Nature of the Lexicon
		File 4.2—Morphological Processes
		File 4.3—Morphological Types of Languages
		File 4.4—The Hierarchical Structure of Derived Words
		File 4.5—Morphological Analysis
		Further Readings
CHAPTER 5: Syntax
	FILE 5.0: What Is Syntax?
		Contents
	FILE 5.1: Basic Ideas of Syntax
		5.1.1 (Un)Grammaticality
		5.1.2 The Relationship between Syntax and Semantics
	FILE 5.2: Syntactic Properties
		5.2.1 What Are Syntactic Properties?
		5.2.2 Word Order
		5.2.3 Co-Occurrence
	FILE 5.3: Syntactic Constituency
		5.3.1 What Are Syntactic Constituents?
		5.3.2 Answers to Questions
		5.3.3 Clefting
		5.3.4 Pro-Form Substitution
	FILE 5.4: Syntactic Categories
		5.4.1 What Are Syntactic Categories?
		5.4.2 Syntactic Categories in English
	FILE 5.5: Constructing a Grammar
		5.5.1 Why Construct Grammars
		5.5.2 Parts of the Grammar: The Lexicon and the Rules
		5.5.3 Ambiguity
	FILE 5.6: Practice
		File 5.1—Basic Ideas of Syntax
		File 5.2—Syntactic Properties
		File 5.3—Syntactic Constituency
		File 5.4—Syntactic Categories
		File 5.5—Constructing a Grammar
		Further Readings
CHAPTER 6: Semantics
	FILE 6.0: What Is Semantics?
		Contents
	FILE 6.1: An Overview of Semantics
		6.1.1 Lexical and Compositional Semantics
		6.1.2 Two Aspects of Linguistic Meaning
	FILE 6.2: Lexical Semantics: The Meanings of Words
		6.2.1 Dictionary Definitions
		6.2.2 Word Senses
		6.2.3 Word Reference
		6.2.4 Meaning Relationships
	FILE 6.3: Compositional Semantics: The Meanings of Sentences
		6.3.1 Propositions and Truth Values
		6.3.2 Relationships between Propositions
	FILE 6.4: Compositional Semantics: Putting Meanings Together
		6.4.1 The Principle of Compositionality
		6.4.2 Combining the Meanings of Verb Phrases and Noun Phrases
		6.4.3 Combining the Meanings of Adjectives and Nouns
	FILE 6.5: Practice
		File 6.1—An Overview of Semantics
		File 6.2—Lexical Semantics: The Meanings of Words
		File 6.3—Compositional Semantics: The Meanings of Sentences
		File 6.4—Compositional Semantics: Putting Meanings Together
		Further Readings
CHAPTER 7: Pragmatics
	FILE 7.0: What Is Pragmatics?
		Contents
	FILE 7.1: Language in Context
		7.1.1 The Importance of Context
		7.1.2 Sentences and Utterances
		7.1.3 How Context Affects Meaning
		7.1.4 Types of Context
		7.1.5 Felicity: Appropriateness Relative to a Context
	FILE 7.2: Rules of Conversation
		7.2.1 Rules for Conversation
		7.2.2 Introducing Grice’s Maxims
		7.2.3 Flouting Maxims
		7.2.4 Grice’s Maxims in a Wider Context
	FILE 7.3: Drawing Conclusions
		7.3.1 Drawing Conclusions: Entailment
		7.3.2 Drawing Conclusions: Inference, Implication, and Implicature
		7.3.3 Implicature Based on the Maxim of Relevance
		7.3.4 Implicature Based on the Maxim of Quantity
		7.3.5 Implicature Based on the Maxim of Manner
		7.3.6 Implicature Based on the Maxim of Quality
		7.3.7 The Significance of Implicatures to Communication
	FILE 7.4: Speech Acts
		7.4.1 An Introduction to Speech Acts
		7.4.2 Felicity Conditions
		7.4.3 Performative Verbs and Performative Speech Acts
		7.4.4 Identifying Performative Speech Acts
		7.4.5 Direct and Indirect Speech Acts
		7.4.6 Identifying Indirect Speech Acts
		7.4.7 Sentences and Their Relation to Speech Acts
	FILE 7.5: Presupposition
		7.5.1 Presuppositions of Existence
		7.5.2 Presuppositions and Truth Values
		7.5.3 Prosody as a Presupposition Trigger
		7.5.4 Presupposition Accommodation
	FILE 7.6: Practice
		File 7.1—Language in Context
		File 7.2—Rules of Conversation
		File 7.3—Drawing Conclusions
		File 7.4—Speech Acts
		File 7.5—Presupposition
		Further Readings
CHAPTER 8: Language Acquisition
	FILE 8.0: What Is Language Acquisition?
		Contents
	FILE 8.1: Theories of Language Acquisition
		8.1.1 About Language Acquisition
		8.1.2 The Innateness Hypothesis
		8.1.3 Imitation Theory
		8.1.4 Reinforcement Theory
		8.1.5 Active Construction of a Grammar Theory
		8.1.6 Connectionist Theories
		8.1.7 Social Interaction Theory
	FILE 8.2: First-Language Acquisition: The Acquisition of Speech Sounds and Phonology
		8.2.1 Physiological Prerequisites of Sound Perception and Production
		8.2.2 Babbling
		8.2.3 Phonological Acquisition
		8.2.4 Language Development from Birth to Twelve Months
	FILE 8.3: First-Language Acquisition: The Acquisition of Morphology, Syntax, and Word Meaning
		8.3.1 The Acquisition of Morphology and Syntax
		8.3.2 The One-Word Stage
		8.3.3 The Two-Word Stage
		8.3.4 Later Stages of Development
		8.3.5 The Acquisition of Word Meaning
		8.3.6 Overview: Language Abilities from Twelve Months to Four Years
	FILE 8.4: How Adults Talk to Young Children
		8.4.1 Talking to Children
		8.4.2 How Adults Get Children to Pay Attention
		8.4.3 What Adults Say to Young Children
		8.4.4 How Adults Talk to Children
		8.4.5 How Necessary Is Child-Directed Speech?
	FILE 8.5: Bilingual Language Acquisition
		8.5.1 Scenarios of Bilingual Language Acquisition
		8.5.2 Bilingual First-Language Acquisition
		8.5.3 Bilingual vs. Monolingual First-Language Acquisition
		8.5.4 Second-Language Acquisition
	FILE 8.6: Practice
		File 8.1—Theories of Language Acquisition
		File 8.2—First-Language Acquisition: The Acquisition of Speech Sounds and Phonology
		File 8.3—First-Language Acquisition: The Acquisition of Morphology, Syntax, and Word Meaning
		File 8.4—How Adults Talk to Young Children
		File 8.5—Bilingual Language Acquisition
		Further Readings
CHAPTER 9: Psycholinguistics
	FILE 9.0: How Do Our Minds Understand and Produce Language?
		Contents
	FILE 9.1: Language and the Brain
		9.1.1 Why Study the Brain?
		9.1.2 Physical Features of the Brain
		9.1.3 The Flow of Linguistic Information
		9.1.4 Lateralization and Contralateralization
	FILE 9.2: Language Disorders
		9.2.1 Language Disorders
		9.2.2 Broca’s Aphasia
		9.2.3 Wernicke’s Aphasia
		9.2.4 Conduction Aphasia
		9.2.5 Problems with the Angular Gyrus
		9.2.6 Aphasia in Signers
		9.2.7 Specific Language Impairment, Williams Syndrome, and the Innateness Hypothesis
	FILE 9.3: Speech Production
		9.3.1 From Thought to Utterance
		9.3.2 Models of Speech Production
		9.3.3 Factors Affecting Speech Production
		9.3.4 Production Errors: Slips of the Tongue
		9.3.5 Production Errors: Slips of the Hands
		9.3.6 Learning from Our Mistakes
	FILE 9.4: Speech Perception
		9.4.1 Receiving Messages
		9.4.2 Speaker Normalization
		9.4.3 Categorical Perception
		9.4.4 Context and Rate Effects
		9.4.5 The McGurk Effect
		9.4.6 Other Factors Involved in Speech Perception
	FILE 9.5: Lexical Access
		9.5.1 What Is Lexical Access?
		9.5.2 The Mental Lexicon
		9.5.3 Word Recognition
		9.5.4 The Cohort Model
		9.5.5 Neural Network Models
		9.5.6 Lexical Ambiguity
	FILE 9.6: Sentence Processing
		9.6.1 How Do We Put Words Together?
		9.6.2 Structural Ambiguity
	FILE 9.7: Experimental Methods in Psycholinguistics
		9.7.1 Some General Issues
		9.7.2 Measuring Activity in the Brain
		9.7.3 Choosing a Method
		9.7.4 Tasks for Lexical Processing
		9.7.5 Tasks for Sentence Processing
	FILE 9.8: Practice
		File 9.1—Language and the Brain
		File 9.2—Language Disorders
		File 9.3—Speech Production
		File 9.4—Speech Perception
		File 9.5—Lexical Access
		File 9.6—Sentence Processing
		File 9.7—Experimental Methods in Psycholinguistics
		Further Readings
CHAPTER 10: Language Variation
	FILE 10.0: What Is Language Variation?
		Contents
	FILE 10.1: Language Varieties
		10.1.1 Languages, Dialects, and Idiolects
		10.1.2 Style and Register
		10.1.3 Jargon and Slang
		10.1.4 Standard Dialects and Notions of Prestige
	FILE 10.2: Variation at Different Levels of Linguistic Structure
		10.2.1 Variation at All Levels
		10.2.2 Phonetic Variation
		10.2.3 Phonological Variation
		10.2.4 Morphological Variation
		10.2.5 Syntactic Variation
		10.2.6 Lexical Variation
	FILE 10.3: Factors Influencing Variation: Regional and Geographic Factors
		10.3.1 Why Does Language Vary?
		10.3.2 Regional and Geographic Variation
		10.3.3 A Case Study in Regional Variation: The United States
		10.3.4 The North
		10.3.5 New England
		10.3.6 The South
		10.3.7 Appalachia
		10.3.8 The Midland
		10.3.9 The West
	FILE 10.4: Factors Influencing Variation: Social Factors
		10.4.1 Social Influences on Language Variation
		10.4.2 Socioeconomic Variation
		10.4.3 Age Variation
		10.4.4 Gender Variation
		10.4.5 Ethnic Variation
	FILE 10.5: Language and Identity
		10.5.1 Using Language to Mark Identity
		10.5.2 Defining “Identity”
		10.5.3 Signaling Identity
		10.5.4 Studying Identity
		10.5.5 Martha’s Vineyard: A Case Study in Language and Identity
	FILE 10.6: Practice
		File 10.1—Language Varieties
		File 10.2—Variation at Different Levels of Linguistic Structure
		File 10.3—Factors Influencing Variation: Regional and Geographic Factors
		File 10.4—Factors Influencing Variation: Social Factors
		File 10.5—Language and Identity
		Further Readings
CHAPTER 11: Language and Culture
	FILE 11.0: What Is the Study of “Language and Culture”?
		Contents
	FILE 11.1: Linguistic Anthropology
		11.1.1 What Is Linguistic Anthropology?
		11.1.2 Kinship Terms
		11.1.3 Communicative Competence
		11.1.4 Indexicality
	FILE 11.2: Language and Thought
		11.2.1 What Is Linguistic Relativity?
		11.2.2 Early Studies in Linguistic Relativity
		11.2.3 Criticism of the Early Studies
		11.2.4 More Recent Investigation of Linguistic Relativity
		11.2.5 Beyond Relativity: Linguistic Determinism and Cultural Anthropology
		11.2.6 Is Linguistic Relativity True?
	FILE 11.3: Language and Power
		11.3.1 The Role of Language in Power Relationships
		11.3.2 Power in Conversations
		11.3.3 Power in Society
	FILE 11.4: Politeness
		11.4.1 Politeness across Cultures
		11.4.2 Indirectness
		11.4.3 Honorifics
		11.4.4 The T/V Distinction
		11.4.5 Face Theory
	FILE 11.5: Ethnography
		11.5.1 What Is Ethnography?
		11.5.2 Etic and Emic
		11.5.3 A Case Study in Ethnography: Jocks and Burnouts at Belten High
	FILE 11.6: Practice
		File 11.1—Linguistic Anthropology
		File 11.2—Language and Thought
		File 11.3—Language and Power
		File 11.4—Politeness
		File 11.5—Ethnography
		Further Readings
CHAPTER 12: Language Contact
	FILE 12.0: What Is Language Contact?
		Contents
	FILE 12.1: Language Contact
		12.1.1 Languages in Contact
		12.1.2 Levels of Borrowing
		12.1.3 Contact Situations
		12.1.4 Outcomes of Language Contact
	FILE 12.2: Borrowings into English
		12.2.1 Lexical Borrowing
		12.2.2 Sources of English Words
	FILE 12.3: Pidgin Languages
		12.3.1 The Development of Pidgin Languages
		12.3.2 Common Features of Pidgins
		12.3.3 Sources of Pidgin Lexicon and Grammar
	FILE 12.4: Creole Languages
		12.4.1 Social Contexts of Creole Formation
		12.4.2 Shared Features
	FILE 12.5: Societal Multilingualism
		12.5.1 Societal Multilingualism
		12.5.2 Code-Switching and Diglossia
	FILE 12.6: Language Endangerment and Language Death
		12.6.1 Minority Language Status
		12.6.2 From Minority Status to Endangerment
		12.6.3 Can Dying/Dead Languages Be Revived?
		12.6.4 What Happens to a Language as It Loses Speakers and Dies?
		12.6.5 A Final Word (Or Two)
	FILE 12.7: Case Studies in Language Contact
		12.7.1 Introduction
		12.7.2 Kupwar
		12.7.3 Deitsch
		12.7.4 Conclusion
	FILE 12.8: Practice
		File 12.1—Language Contact
		File 12.2—Borrowings into English
		File 12.3—Pidgin Languages
		File 12.4—Creole Languages
		File 12.5—Societal Multilingualism
		File 12.6—Language Endangerment and Language Death
		File 12.7—Case Studies in Language Contact
		Further Readings
CHAPTER 13: Language Change
	FILE 13.0: What Is Language Change?
		Contents
	FILE 13.1: Introducing Language Change
		13.1.1 Synchronic vs. Diachronic Linguistics
		13.1.2 How Does Language Change?
		13.1.3 Why Does a Language Change?
		13.1.4 Is Language Change Bad?
	FILE 13.2: Language Relatedness
		13.2.1 Similarities across Languages
		13.2.2 Models of Language Relatedness
	FILE 13.3: Sound Change
		13.3.1 What Is Sound Change?
		13.3.2 Phonetic vs. Phonological Change
		13.3.3 The Regularity of Sound Change
		13.3.4 Types of Sound Change
	FILE 13.4: Morphological Change
		13.4.1 What Is Morphological Change?
		13.4.2 Proportional Analogy and Paradigm Leveling
		13.4.3 Back Formation and Folk Etymology
		13.4.4 Adding New Words to a Language
	FILE 13.5: Syntactic Change
		13.5.1 Defining Syntactic Change
		13.5.2 Changes in Word Order
		13.5.3 Changes in Co-Occurrence
		13.5.4 Causes of Syntactic Change
	FILE 13.6: Semantic Change
		13.6.1 Changing the Meanings of Words
		13.6.2 Semantic Extensions
		13.6.3 Semantic Reductions
		13.6.4 Semantic Elevations
		13.6.5 Semantic Degradations
		13.6.6 Interactions of Semantic Changes
	FILE 13.7: Internal Reconstruction and Comparative Reconstruction
		13.7.1 Reconstruction
		13.7.2 Internal Reconstruction
		13.7.3 Comparative Reconstruction
		13.7.4 Comparative Method Procedure
	FILE 13.8: Practice
		File 13.1—Introducing Language Change
		File 13.2—Language Relatedness
		File 13.3—Sound Change
		File 13.4—Morphological Change
		File 13.5—Syntactic Change
		File 13.6—Semantic Change
		File 13.7—Internal Reconstruction and Comparative Reconstruction
		Further Readings
CHAPTER 14: Animal Communication
	FILE 14.0: How Do Animals Communicate?
		Contents
	FILE 14.1: Communication and Language
		14.1.1 Design Features Revisited
		14.1.2 Design Features Shared by All Communication Systems
		14.1.3 Design Features Exhibited by Some Animal Communication Systems
		14.1.4 Design Features Not Found in Animal Communication Systems
		14.1.5 What the Design Features Show Us about Animal Communication
	FILE 14.2: Animal Communication in the Wild
		14.2.1 Bee Communication
		14.2.2 Bird Communication
		14.2.3 Primate Communication
		14.2.4 Concluding Remarks
	FILE 14.3: Can Animals Be Taught Language?
		14.3.1 Attempts to Teach Animals Language
		14.3.2 Primate Studies
		14.3.3 Non-Primate Studies
	FILE 14.4: Practice
		File 14.1—Communication and Language
		File 14.2—Animal Communication in the Wild
		File 14.3—Can Animals Be Taught Language?
		Further Readings
CHAPTER 15: Writing Systems
	FILE 15.0: What Is Writing?
		Contents
	FILE 15.1: Writing, Language, and Culture
		15.1.1 What Is Writing?
		15.1.2 Writing and Language
		15.1.3 Writing and Culture
		15.1.4 Functional Writing Systems
		15.1.5 Computer-Mediated Communication
	FILE 15.2: Types of Writing Systems
		15.2.1 Classifying Writing Systems
		15.2.2 Morphographic Writing Systems
		15.2.3 Phonographic Writing Systems
	FILE 15.3: The Historical Evolution of Writing Systems
		15.3.1 The Creation of Writing Systems
		15.3.2 Early Writing Systems
		15.3.3 The Development of the Greek and Roman Alphabets (and Other Writing Systems)
		15.3.4 Deciphering Ancient Languages
	FILE 15.4: Practice
		File 15.1—Writing, Language, and Culture
		File 15.2—Types of Writing Systems
		File 15.3—The Historical Evolution of Writing Systems
		Further Readings
CHAPTER 16: Language and Computers
	FILE 16.0: What Is Computational Linguistics?
		Contents
	FILE 16.1: Speech Synthesis
		16.1.1 Synthesized Speech
		16.1.2 The Earliest Synthesis Machines
		16.1.3 Articulatory Synthesis
		16.1.4 Concatenative Synthesis
		16.1.5 Text-To Speech Synthesis
		16.1.6 Applications of Speech Synthesis
	FILE 16.2: Automatic Speech Recognition
		16.2.1 The Nature of Speech Recognition
		16.2.2 The Noisy Channel Model
		16.2.3 Components of an Automatic Speech Recognition System
		16.2.4 Types of Speech Recognition Systems
		16.2.5 Problems in Speech Recognition
		16.2.6 Future Directions
	FILE 16.3: Communicating with Computers
		16.3.1 Interacting with Computers Using Natural Language
		16.3.2 Interactive Text-Based Systems
		16.3.3 Spoken-Language Dialogue Systems
		16.3.4 Components of a Spoken-Language Dialogue System
		16.3.5 Evaluation of Interactive Systems
	FILE 16.4: Machine Translation
		16.4.1 What Is Machine Translation?
		16.4.2 The Translation Problem
		16.4.3 MT System Design
	FILE 16.5: Corpus Linguistics
		16.5.1 What Is a Corpus?
		16.5.2 Kinds of Corpora
	FILE 16.6: Practice
		File 16.1—Speech Synthesis
		File 16.2—Automatic Speech Recognition
		File 16.3—Communicating with Computers
		File 16.4—Machine Translation
		File 16.5—Corpus Linguistics
		Further Readings
CHAPTER 17: Practical Applications
	FILE 17.0: What Can You Do with Linguistics?
		Contents
	FILE 17.1: Language Education
		17.1.1 Job Description
		17.1.2 Jobs Available and Job Qualifications
		17.1.3 Language Education and Linguistics
	FILE 17.2: Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology
		17.2.1 Job Description
		17.2.2 Job Qualifications
	FILE 17.3: Forensic Linguistics
		17.3.1 Legal Applications of Linguistics
		17.3.2 Forensic Linguistics
		17.3.3 Jobs Available and Job Qualifications
	FILE 17.4: Language in Advertising
		17.4.1 Language and the Goals of Advertising
		17.4.2 Using Language to Establish Trust
		17.4.3 Using Language to Convey a Message of Superiority
		17.4.4 Job Qualifications
	FILE 17.5: Codes and Code-Breaking
		17.5.1 Code-Breaking
		17.5.2 Alice, Bob, and Eve
		17.5.3 The Limits of Secrecy
		17.5.4 Traffic Analysis
		17.5.5 Codes and Ciphers
		17.5.6 Enigma
		17.5.7 Job Qualifications
	FILE 17.6: Being a Linguist
		17.6.1 Job Description
		17.6.2 Job Qualifications
	FILE 17.7: Practice
		File 17.1—Language Education
		File 17.2—Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology
		File 17.3—Forensic Linguistics
		File 17.4—Language in Advertising
		File 17.5—Codes and Code-Breaking
		File 17.6—Being a Linguist
		Further Readings
APPENDIX: Answers to Example Exercises
	File 3.6 Exercise 22—Phonology Exercise on Mokilese
	File 4.6 Exercise 24(a)—Morphology Exercise on Hierarchical Structure
	File 4.6 Exercise 29—Morphology Exercise on Isthmus Zapotec
	File 7.6 Exercise 13—Pragmatics Exercise on the Maxim of Quantity
	File 13.8 Exercise 34—Reconstruction Exercise on Middle Chinese
GLOSSARY
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
LANGUAGE INDEX
SUBJECT INDEX
Examples of Phonetic Symbols Found in Standard American English
	a. Consonants
	b. Vowels
Consonants of Standard American English
Vowels of Standard American English
THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET (revised to 2005)