King's Applied Anatomy of the Central Nervous System of Domestic Mammals

Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Foreword to the Second Edition
Preface
Acknowledgement
About the Contributors
About the Companion Website
Chapter 1 Arterial Supply to the Central Nervous System
	Arterial Supply to the Brain
	1.1 Basic Pattern of the Main Arteries Supplying the Brain
	1.2 Basic Pattern of Incoming Branches to the Cerebral Arterial Circle
	1.3 Species Variations
		1.3.1 Dog, Man and most Mammals
		1.3.2 Sheep and Cat
		1.3.3 Ox
		1.3.4 Summary of Species Variations
	1.4 Summary of the Significance of the Vertebral Artery as a Source of Blood to the Brain
	1.5 Humane Slaughter
	1.6 Rete Mirabile
	Superficial Arteries of the Spinal Cord
	1.7 Main Trunks
		1.7.1 Dorsolateral Arteries
		1.7.2 Ventral Spinal Artery
	1.8 Anastomosing Arteries
	1.9 Segmental Arteries to the Spinal Cord
		1.9.1 Deep Arteries of the Neuraxis
	1.10 General Principles Governing the Distribution of Arteries below the Surface of the Neuraxis
		1.10.1 The Phylogenetic Age of the Region
	1.11 The Deep Arteries of the Spinal Cord
		1.11.1 Vertical Arteries
		1.11.2 Radial Arteries
	1.12 The Problem of Pulsation
	1.13 Arterial Anastomoses of the Neuraxis
		1.13.1 On the Surface of the Neuraxis
		1.13.2 Below the Surface of the Neuraxis
		1.13.3 Failure of the Blood Supply to the Neuraxis
Chapter 2 The Meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid
	Meninges
	2.1 General Anatomy of the Cranial and Spinal Meninges
		2.1.1 Dura Mater
		2.1.2 Arachnoid
		2.1.3 Pia Mater
	2.2 Anatomy of the Meninges at the Roots of Spinal and Cranial Nerves
	2.3 The Spaces around the Meninges
		2.3.1 Epidural Space
		2.3.2 Subdural Space
		2.3.3 Subarachnoid Space
	2.4 Relationship of Blood Vessels to the Meninges
	2.5 The Filum Terminale
	2.6 The Falx Cerebri and Membranous Tentorium Cerebelli
	Cerebrospinal Fluid
	2.7 Formation of Cerebrospinal Fluid
	2.8 The Choroid Plexuses
	2.9 Mechanism of Formation of Cerebrospinal Fluid
	2.10 Circulation of Cerebrospinal Fluid
	2.11 Drainage of Cerebrospinal Fluid
		2.11.1 Venules of the Subarachnoid Space
		2.11.2 Arachnoid Villi
		2.11.3 Lymphatics of Cranial and Spinal Nerves
	2.12 Functions of Cerebrospinal Fluid
		2.12.1 Protection of the Neuraxis against Impact
	2.13 Blood-brain Barrier
	2.14 Collection of Cerebrospinal Fluid
		2.14.1 The Atlanto-Occipital Site
		2.14.2 The Lumbosacral Region
	2.15 Clinical Conditions of the Cerebrospinal Fluid System
Chapter 3 Venous Drainage of the Spinal Cord and Brain
	The Cranial System of Venous Sinuses
	3.1 General Plan
		3.1.1 Dorsal System of Sinuses
		3.1.2 Ventral System of Sinuses
		3.1.3 Connecting System of Sinuses
	3.2 The Components of the Dorsal System of Sinuses
		3.2.1 Dorsal Sagittal Sinus
		3.2.2 Straight Sinus
		3.2.3 Transverse Sinus
	3.3 The Components of the Ventral System of Sinuses
		3.3.1 Cavernous Sinus
		3.3.2 Dorsal Petrosal and Ventral Petrosal Sinuses
	3.4 Drainage of the Cranial Sinuses into the Systemic Circulation
		3.4.1 The Veins of the Brain
	The Spinal System of Venous Sinuses
	3.5 General Plan
	3.6 Connections to the Cranial System of Sinuses
	3.7 Territory Drained by the Spinal System of Sinuses
	3.8 Drainage of the Spinal Sinuses into the Systemic Circulation
	Clinical Significance of the Venous Drainage of the Neuraxis
	3.9 Spread of Infection in the Head
	3.10 Paradoxical Embolism
	3.11 Venous Obstruction
	3.12 Angiography for Diagnosis
Chapter 4 The Applied Anatomy of the Vertebral Canal
	The Anatomy of Epidural Anaesthesia and Lumbar Puncture
	4.1 The Vertebrae
		4.1.1 Caudal (Coccygeal) Vertebrae
		4.1.2 Ligaments
	4.2 Spinal Cord
		4.2.1 Filum Terminale and Cauda Equina
		4.2.2 The End of the Spinal Cord
	4.3 Meninges
	4.4 Lumbar Puncture
	4.5 Epidural Anaesthesia in the Ox
		4.5.1 Site
		4.5.2 Objectives
		4.5.3 Anatomical Hazards
		4.5.4 Epidural Anaesthesia in other Species
	4.6 Injuries to the Root of the Tail
	The Anatomy of the Intervertebral Disc
	4.7 The Components of the Disc
		4.7.1 Anulus Fibrosus
		4.7.2 Nucleus Pulposus
		4.7.3 The Longitudinal Ligaments
		4.7.4 Blood and Nerve Supply
	4.8 Senile Changes
	4.9 Disc Protrusion
		4.9.1 General Principles
		4.9.2 Regional Distribution in Domestic Animals
		4.9.3 Regional Distribution in Man
	4.10 Fibrocartilaginous Embolism
	Malformation or Malarticulation of Vertebrae
	4.11 The ‘Wobbler Syndrome’ in the Dog
	4.12 The Wobbler Syndrome in the Horse
	4.13 Atlanto-Axial Subluxation in Dogs
	4.14 Anomalous Atlanto-Occipital Region in Arab Horses
	4.15 Other Vertebral Abnormalities in Dogs
Chapter 5 The Neuron
	The Anatomy of Neurons
	5.1 General Structure
		5.1.1 Relationships of the Dendrites and the Axon to the Cell Body
		5.1.2 Branches of a Neuron
		5.1.3 Synaptic End Bulbs
		5.1.4 Size and Shape of the Neuron Cell Body
		5.1.5 Cell Structure
		5.1.6 Protein Synthesis
	5.2 The Axon
		5.2.1 The Axis Cylinder
		5.2.2 Axonal Transport
		5.2.3 The Myelin Sheath
		5.2.4 Fibre Diameter and Conduction Velocity
	5.3 Epineurium, Perineurium and Endoneurium
	5.4 The Synapse
		5.4.1 General Structure of the Synaptic End Bulb
		5.4.2 The Presynaptic Membrane
		5.4.3 The Synaptic Cleft
		5.4.4 The Postsynaptic Membrane
		5.4.5 Transmitter Substances
	5.5 Phylogenetically Primitive and Advanced Neurons
		5.5.1 Phylogenetically Primitive Neurons
		5.5.2 Phylogenetically Advanced Neurons
		5.5.3 Specific and Non-specific Pathways
	5.6 Axonal Degeneration and Regeneration in Peripheral Nerves
	5.7 Regeneration and Plasticity in the Neuraxis
	5.8 Stem Cells and Olfactory Ensheathing Cells
	5.9 The Reflex Arc
		5.9.1 Basic Principles
	5.10 Decussation: The Coiling Reflex
Chapter 6 The Nerve Impulse
	Excitation and Inhibition
	6.1 Ion Channels and Gating Mechanisms
	6.2 The Membrane Potential
	6.3 The Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential
		6.3.1 Characteristics of the Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential
		6.3.2 Ionic Basis of the Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential
		6.3.3 Summation
		6.3.4 Facilitation
	6.4 The Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential
		6.4.1 Characteristics of the Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential
		6.4.2 Ionic Basis of the Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential
		6.4.3 Presynaptic Inhibition
		6.4.4 Role of Inhibitory Neurons in the Neuraxis
		6.4.5 Reciprocal Innervation
		6.4.6 Disinhibition
	6.5 The Receptor Potential
	6.6 The End-plate Potential
	6.7 Summary of Decremental Potentials
	6.8 The Action Potential
		6.8.1 Threshold
		6.8.2 The Role of the Trigger Region
		6.8.3 The Ionic Flux of the Action Potential
		6.8.4 Recovery after an Action Potential
		6.8.5 Refractory Periods
	6.9 Concerning Water Closets
	6.10 Transducer Mechanisms of Receptors
		6.10.1 Neuroglia
	6.11 Astrocytes
	6.12 Oligodendrocytes
	6.13 Microglia
Chapter 7 Nuclei of the Cranial Nerves
	General Principles Governing the Architecture of the Nuclei of the Cranial Nerves
	7.1 Shape and Position of the Central Canal
	7.2 Fragmentation of the Basic Columns of Grey Matter
	7.3 Development of an Additional Component; Special Visceral Efferent
	7.4 The Cranial Nerves of the Special Senses
	7.5 Summary of the Architectural Principles of the Nuclei of the Cranial Nerves
	Names, Topography and Functions of the Cranial Nerve Nuclei
	7.6 Somatic Afferent Nucleus
	7.7 Visceral Afferent Nucleus
	7.8 Visceral Efferent Nuclei
	7.9 Special Visceral Efferent Nuclei
	7.10 Somatic Efferent Nuclei
	Reflex Arcs of the Nuclei of the Cranial Nerves
	Significance of the Nuclei of the Cranial Nerves in Clinical Neurology
Chapter 8 Medial Lemniscal System
	Conscious Sensory Modalities, their Receptors and Pathways
	8.1 Conscious Sensory Modalities
	8.2 Peripheral Receptors of Touch, Pressure and Joint Proprioception
		8.2.1 Free Nerve Endings
		8.2.2 Neurite-Receptor Cell Complexes
		8.2.3 Complex Laminated Receptors (Encapsulated Receptors)
	8.3 Pathways of Touch, Pressure and Joint Proprioception
		8.3.1 Neuron 1
		8.3.2 Neuron 2
		8.3.3 Neuron 3
	Clinical Conditions Affecting the Medial Lemniscal System
	8.4 Effects of Lesions in the Dorsal Funiculus
	Pain Pathways
	8.5 Peripheral Receptors of Pain
		8.5.1 Superficial Pain
		8.5.2 Deep Pain
	8.6 Spinothalamic Tract of Man
		8.6.1 Neuron 1
		8.6.2 Neuron 2
		8.6.3 Neuron 3
	8.7 Spinothalamic Pathways in Domestic Mammals
	8.8 Spinocervical Tract (Spinocervicothalamic Tract)
	8.9 Species Variations in the Medial Lemniscal System
		8.9.1 Cuneate and Gracile Fascicles
		8.9.2 Spinothalamic Pathway
	8.10 Somatotopic Localisation
	8.11 Blending of Tracts in the Spinal Cord
	8.12 Summary of the Medial Lemniscus System
Chapter 9 The Special Senses
	Vision
	9.1 Neuron 1
	9.2 Neuron 2
	9.3 Neuron 3
		9.3.1 Pathways Coordinating Eyeball Movements
		9.3.2 Pathways Constricting the Pupil
		9.3.3 Pathways Controlling Turning of Head and Neck
		9.3.4 Ascending Reticular Formation
		9.3.5 Decussation of the Visual Pathways (see Sections 5.10 and 9.1 and Figure 9.3)
	Hearing
	9.4 Neuron 1
	9.5 Neuron 2
	9.6 Neuron 3
	Balance
	9.7 Neuron 1
	9.8 Neuron 2
		9.8.1 Connections of the Vestibular Nuclei
		9.8.2 Vestibular Disease
	Taste
	9.9 Neuron 1
	9.10 Neuron 2
	9.11 Neuron 3
	Olfaction Proper: The Sense of Smell
		9.12 Neuron 1
		9.13 Neuron 2
		9.14 Neuron 3
			9.14.1 The Rhinencephalon
			9.14.2 Concept of the Limbic System
			9.14.3 Thalamus and Geniculate Nuclei
	Summary of the Conscious Sensory Systems
Chapter 10 Spinocerebellar Pathways and Ascending Reticular Formation
	10.1 Spinocerebellar Pathways
	10.2 Ascending Reticular Formation
	Spinocerebellar Pathways
		10.3 Hindlimbs
			10.3.1 Dorsal Spinocerebellar Tract
			10.3.2 Ventral Spinocerebellar Tract
		10.4 Forelimbs
			10.4.1 Spinocuneocerebellar Pathway
			10.4.2 Cranial Spinocerebellar Tract
		10.5 Projections of Spinocerebellar Pathways to the Cerebral Cortex
		10.6 Functions of the Spinocerebellar Pathways
		10.7 Species Variations
	Ascending Reticular Formation
	10.8 Organisation
		10.8.1 Constituent Neurons
		10.8.2 Input
		10.8.3 In the Spinal Cord
		10.8.4 In the Brain
		10.8.5 Projection to the Cerebral Cortex
		10.8.6 Site of Cell Location of Reticular Formation throughout the CNS
		10.8.7 Phylogeny
	Functions of the Ascending Reticular Formation
	10.9 Arousal
	10.10 Transmission of Deep Pain
		10.10.1 Visceral Pain
		10.10.2 Sleep
	10.11 Summary of Spinocerebellar Pathways and Ascending Reticular Formation
Chapter 11 Somatic Motor Systems
	Somatic Efferent Neurons
	11.1 Motor Neurons in the Ventral Horn of the Spinal Cord
	Muscle Spindles
	11.2 Structure of the Muscle Spindle
	11.3 The Mode of Operation of the Muscle Spindle
		11.3.1 By Stretching of the Muscle as a Whole
		11.3.2 By Stimulation of the Fusimotor Neuron
	11.4 Role of Muscle Spindles in Posture and Movement
	11.5 Golgi Tendon Organs
	11.6 Muscle Tone
	11.7 Motor Unit
	11.8 Recruitment of Motor Units
	11.9 Summary of Ways of Increasing the Force of Contraction of a Muscle
	The Final Common Path
	11.10 Algebraic Summation at the Final Common Path
	11.11 Renshaw Cells
	11.12 Lower Motor Neuron
	11.13 Integration of the Two Sides of the Neuraxis
Chapter 12 Pyramidal System
	Pyramidal Pathways
	12.1 The Neuron Relay
		12.1.1 Neuron 1
		12.1.2 Neuron 2
		12.1.3 Neuron 3
	Feedback Pathways of the Pyramidal System
	12.2 Feedback of the Pyramidal System
		12.2.1 Corticopontocerebellar Path
		12.2.2 Return Pathway from Cerebellum to Cerebral Cortex
	Comparative Anatomy of the Pyramidal System
	12.3 Species Variations in the Primary Motor Area of the Cerebral Cortex
	12.4 Species Variations in the Pyramidal System
		12.4.1 Primates and Carnivores
		12.4.2 Ungulates
	12.5 The Function of the Pyramidal System
	Clinical Considerations
	12.6 Effects of Lesions in the Pyramidal System
	12.7 Validity of the Distinction between Pyramidal and Extrapyramidal Systems
Chapter 13 Extrapyramidal System
	Motor Centres
	13.1 Nine Command Centres
	13.2 The Cerebral Cortex
	13.3 Basal Nuclei and Corpus Striatum
	13.4 Midbrain Reticular Formation
	13.5 Red Nucleus
	13.6 Mesencephalic Tectum
	13.7 Pontine Motor Reticular Centres
	13.8 Lateral Medullary Motor Reticular Centres
	13.9 Medial Medullary Motor Reticular Centres
	13.10 Vestibular Nuclei
	Spinal Pathways
	13.11 Pontine and Medullary Reticulospinal Tracts
	13.12 Rubrospinal Tract
	13.13 Vestibulospinal Tract
	13.14 Tectospinal Tract
	13.15 The Position in the Spinal Cord of the Tracts of the Extrapyramidal System
	13.16 Summary of the Tracts of the Extrapyramidal System
Chapter 14 Extrapyramidal Feedback and Upper Motor Neuron Disorders
	Feedback of the Extrapyramidal System
	14.1 Neuronal Centres of the Feedback Circuits
		14.1.1 Olivary Nucleus
		14.1.2 Cerebellum
		14.1.3 Thalamus
	14.2 Feedback Circuits
		14.2.1 Centres 1 and 2: The Cerebral Cortex and Globus Pallidus
		14.2.2 Centres 3 and 4: The Midbrain Reticular Formation and Red Nucleus
		14.2.3 Centres 5 and 9: The Tectum and Vestibular Nuclei
		14.2.4 Centres 6, 7 and 8: The Pontine Motor Reticular Centres the Lateral Medullary Motor Reticular Centres and the Medial Medullary Motor Reticular Centres
		14.2.5 Feedback between Basal Nuclei and Cerebral Cortex
	14.3 Balance between Inhibitory and Facilitatory Centres
		14.3.1 Facilitatory Components
		14.3.2 Inhibitory Components
	14.4 Clinical Signs of Lesions in Extrapyramidal Motor Centres in Man
		14.4.1 General Principles
		14.4.2 Lesions in the Basal Nuclei
		14.4.3 Parkinson’s Disease
	14.5 Clinical Signs of Lesions in the Basal Nuclei in Domestic Animals
	14.6 Upper Motor Neuron Disorders
Chapter 15 Summary of the Somatic Motor Systems
	The Motor Components of the Neuraxis
	15.1 Pyramidal System
	15.2 Extrapyramidal System
	15.3 Distinction between Pyramidal and Extrapyramidal Systems
	Clinical Signs of Motor System Injuries
	15.4 Functions of the Pyramidal and Extrapyramidal Systems: Effects of Injury to the Motor Command Centres
	15.5 Upper Motor Neuron
	15.6 Lower Motor Neuron
	15.7 Summary of Projections onto the Final Common Path
Chapter 16 The Cerebellum
	Afferent Pathways to the Cerebellum
	16.1 Ascending from the Spinal Cord
	16.2 Feedback Input into the Cerebellar Cortex
		16.2.1 From the Pyramidal System
		16.2.2 From the Extrapyramidal System
		Arterial Supply to the Brain
		16.2.3 Summary of Decussation of the Feedback Circuits of the Cerebellum
	Summary of Pathways in the Cerebellar Peduncles
	16.3 Caudal Cerebellar Peduncle
	16.4 Middle Cerebellar Peduncle
	16.5 Rostral Cerebellar Peduncle
	Rostral Cerebellar Peduncle
	16.6 Vestibular Areas
	16.7 Proprioceptive Areas
	16.8 Feedback Areas
	Functions of the Cerebellum
	16.9 Co-ordination and Regulation of Movement
	16.10 Control of Posture
	16.11 Ipsilateral Function of the Cerebellum
	16.12 Summary of Cerebellar Function
	16.13 Functional Histology of the Cerebellum
		16.13.1 Summary of Functional Cerebellar Histology
	Clinical Conditions of the Cerebellum
	16.14 The Three Cerebellar Syndromes
	16.15 Cerebellar Disease in Domestic Mammals and Man
Chapter 17 Autonomic Components of the Central Nervous System
	Neocortex and Hippocampus
	17.1 Cortical Components
	17.2 Hippocampus
	Diencephalon
	17.3 Hypothalamus
		17.3.1 Components of the Hypothalamus
		17.3.2 Autonomic Nuclei of the Hypothalamus
	The Autonomic Functions of the Hypothalamus
	17.4 Amygdaloid Body and Septal Nuclei
	17.5 Habenular Nuclei
	17.6 Hindbrain Autonomic Areas
		The Autonomic Areas of the Hindbrain
		17.6.1 Cardiovascular Centres
		17.6.2 Respiratory Centres
		17.6.3 Alimentary Centres
	17.7 Autonomic Motor Pathways in the Spinal Cord
	17.8 Ascending (Afferent) Visceral Pathways in the Spinal Cord and Brainstem
		17.8.1 Visceral Pain Pathways
		17.8.2 Visceral Afferent Pathways not Concerned with Pain
	Clinical Disorders of the Autonomic System
	17.9 Effects of Lesions in Autonomic Pathways
		17.9.1 Lesions in the Hypothalamus
		17.9.2 Lesions in the Pontine, Medullary and Spinal Reticular Formation
	17.10 Summary of Descending Autonomic Pathways
Chapter 18 The Cerebral Cortex and Thalamus
	Cerebral Cortex
	18.1 Projection Areas and Association Areas
	18.2 Instinct
	18.3 Cerebral Cortex in Primitive Mammals
	18.4 Cerebral Cortex in the Cat and Dog
	18.5 Conditioned Reflexes
	18.6 Cerebral Cortex in Man
	18.7 Cognitive Association Area in Man
	18.8 Cognitive Association Area in Carnivores
	18.9 Interpretative Association Area in Man
	18.10 Interpretative Association Area in Carnivores
	18.11 Frontal Association Area in Man
	18.12 Frontal Association Area in Carnivores
	18.13 Corpus Callosum
	Clinical Conditions of the Cerebral Cortex
	18.14 Effects of Extensive Damage to the Cerebral Hemisphere in Domestic Mammals
	18.15 Seizures
	Histology of the Cerebral Cortex
	18.16 Histology of the Cerebral Cortex
	Thalamus
	18.17 Ventral Group of Thalamic Nuclei
	18.18 The Lateral Group
	18.19 Central (or Intralaminar) Group
	18.20 Dorsomedial Group
	18.21 Summary of Incoming Afferent Paths to the Thalamus
	18.22 Summary of the Projections from the Thalamus to the Cerebral Cortex
		18.22.1 Specific Projections:
		18.22.2 Diffuse Projections:
	18.23 Summary of Functions of the Thalamus
	18.24 Clinical Effects of Lesions of the Thalamus in Domestic Mammals
	18.25 Clinical Effects of Lesions of the Thalamus in Man
	Growth of the Human Brain
Chapter 19 Embryological and Comparative Neuroanatomy
	The Embryological Development of the Central Nervous System
	19.1 The Development of the Brain
	19.2 The Development of the Spinal Cord
	19.3 The Development of the Neural Crest
	Evolution of the Vertebrate Forebrain
	19.4 Primitive Vertebrates
	19.5 Contemporary Amphibian
	19.6 Contemporary Advanced Reptile
	19.7 Mammal
	19.8 Bird
	19.9 Major Homologies in Mammals and Birds
	Evolution of the Capacity to Differentiate Sensory Modalities
	19.10 Lower Vertebrates, Including Amphibians
	19.11 Advanced Reptiles and Birds
	19.12 Mammals
	Special Features of the Avian Brain
	19.13 Size of the Brain
	19.14 Poor Development of the Cerebral Cortex
	19.15 External Striatum
	19.16 Colliculi: The Optic Lobe
	19.17 Olfactory Areas
	19.18 Cerebellum
	19.19 Spinocerebellar Pathways
	19.20 Cuneate and Gracile Fascicles
	19.21 Motor Spinal Pathways
Chapter 20 Clinical Neurology
	20.1 Mental Status
	20.2 Posture
	20.3 Gait
	20.4 Examination of the Cranial Nerves: Tests and Observations
		20.4.1 Olfactory Nerve (Cranial Nerve I)
		20.4.2 Optic Nerve (Cranial Nerve II) Tests
		20.4.3 Oculomotor Nerve (Cranial Nerve III)
		20.4.4 Trochlear Nerve (Cranial Nerve IV)
		20.4.5 Trigeminal Nerve (Cranial Nerve V)
		20.4.6 Abducens Nerve (Cranial Nerve VI)
		20.4.7 Facial Nerve (Cranial Nerve VII)
		20.4.8 Vestibulocochlear Nerve (Cranial Nerve VIII)
		20.4.9 Glossopharyngeal Nerve (Cranial Nerve IX)
		20.4.10 Vagus Nerve (Cranial Nerve X)
		20.4.11 Accessory Nerve (Cranial Nerve XI)
		20.4.12 Hypoglossal Nerve (Cranial Nerve XII)
	Testing Postural and Locomotor Responses
	20.5 Tonic Neck and Eye Responses
	20.6 Proprioceptive Positioning Responses
	20.7 Placing Responses
	20.8 Extensor Postural Thrust
	20.9 Hopping
	20.10 Wheelbarrow Test
	20.11 Hemiwalking
	20.12 Righting
	20.13 Blindfolding
	20.14 Circling Test
	20.15 Sway Test
	Examination of Spinal Reflexes
	20.16 Withdrawal (Flexor) Reflex
		20.16.1 Forelimbs
		20.16.2 Hindlimbs
	20.17 Patellar Tendon Reflex
	20.18 Triceps Tendon Reflex
	20.19 Biceps Tendon Reflex
	20.20 Cutaneous Trunci/Colli (Formerly Panniculus) Reflex
	20.21 Perineal Reflex
	20.22 Crossed Extensor Reflex
	20.23 Babinski Reflex
	Other Tests
	20.24 Assessment of Muscle Tone
	20.25 Testing Conscious Pain Responses
	20.26 Detecting Discomfort
	20.27 Testing the Sympathetic System
		20.27.1 Neuroanatomy
	20.28 Case Sheet
Chapter 21 Imaging Techniques for Study of the Central Nervous System
	General Considerations
	21.1 Species
	21.2 Objectives of Imaging in Clinical Neurology
	21.3 Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
	21.4 The Use of Contrast Agents in Imaging
	Intracranial Structures
	21.5 Positioning of the Head
	21.6 Breed and Age Variation in Images of the Head
	Vertebral Column
	21.7 Positioning of the Patient
	21.8 Imaging the Vertebral Column
		21.8.1 Atlanto-Axial Subluxation
		21.8.2 Cervical Spondylopathy
		21.8.3 Syringomyelia (Figure 21.8)
		21.8.4 Spina Bifida
		21.8.5 Spondylosis
		21.8.6 Discospondylitis
		21.8.7 Lesions of Intervertebral Discs (Figure 4.5)
	21.9 Contrast Radiography of the Vertebral Column
		21.9.1 Myelography
		21.9.2 Epidurography
Chapter 22 Topographical Anatomy of the Central Nervous System
	Spinal Cord
	22.1 Regions of the Spinal Cord
	22.2 Segments of Spinal Cord and their Relationship to Vertebrae
	22.3 General Organisation of Grey and White Matter
	22.4 Dorsal, Lateral and Ventral Horns of Grey Matter
	22.5 Laminae of Grey Matter
	22.6 Funiculi of White Matter
	22.7 Tracts of the White Matter
		22.7.1 Dorsal Funiculus
		22.7.2 Lateral Funiculus
		22.7.3 Ventral Funiculus
	Medulla Oblongata
	22.8 Gross Structure
	22.9 Cranial Nerves
	22.10 Ventricular System
	22.11 Internal Structure
		22.11.1 Pyramids
		22.11.2 Gracile and Cuneate Fascicles
		22.11.3 Spinothalamic Tract
		22.11.4 Spinal Tract of the Trigeminal Nerve
		22.11.5 Dorsal and Ventral Spinocerebellar Tracts
		22.11.6 Cochlear Nuclei
		22.11.7 Vestibular Nuclei
		22.11.8 Solitary Tract
		22.11.9 Motor Nuclei of Cranial Nerves VI, VII, IX, X and XII
		22.11.10 Spinotectal, Tectospinal and Rubrospinal Tracts
		22.11.11 Reticular Formation
	Pons
	22.12 Gross Structure
	22.13 Cranial Nerves
	22.14 Ventricular System
	22.15 Internal Structure
		22.15.1 Corticospinal, Corticonuclear and Corticopontocerebellar Pathways
		22.15.2 Ascending and Descending Tracts in the Tegmentum of the Pons
		22.15.3 Motor and Sensory Trigeminal Nuclei
		22.15.4 Reticular Formation
	Midbrain
	22.16 Gross Structure
	22.17 Cranial Nerves
	22.18 Ventricular System
	22.19 Internal Structure
		22.19.1 Tectum
		22.19.2 Tegmentum of the Midbrain
		22.19.3 Cerebral Crus
		22.19.4 Substantia Nigra
	Diencephalon
	22.20 Gross Structure
		22.20.1 Epithalamus
		22.20.2 Thalamus
		22.20.3 Metathalamus
		22.20.4 Hypothalamus
		22.20.5 Subthalamus
	22.21 Cranial Nerves
	22.22 Ventricular System
	22.23 Internal Structure
		22.23.1 Epithalamus
		22.23.2 Thalamus
		22.23.3 Metathalamus
		22.23.4 Hypothalamus
		22.23.5 Subthalamus
	Cerebellum
	22.24 Gross Structure
	22.25 Internal Structure
		22.25.1 Cerebellar Cortex
		22.25.2 White Matter
		22.25.3 Nuclei of the Cerebellum
	22.26 Cerebellar Peduncles
	Cerebral Hemispheres
	22.27 Gross Structure
		22.27.1 Lobes
		22.27.2 Olfactory Components of the Rhinencephalon
	22.28 Ventricular System
	22.29 Internal Structure
		22.29.1 White Matter
		22.29.2 Grey Matter
Chapter 23 Electrodiagnostics
	23.1 Introduction
	23.2 Electromyography
	23.3 Nerve Conduction Velocity
	23.4 Electroencephalography
	23.5 Evoked Potentials
		23.5.1 Brainstem Auditory Evoked Potential
		23.5.2 Visual Evoked Potential
	23.6 Electroretinography
	23.7 Intra-operative Monitoring of Spinal Cord Function
Chapter 24 Diagnostic Exercises
	24.1 Introduction
	24.2 Solutions to Diagnostic Exercises
Appendix
Further Reading
Index
EULA