Kinesiology of the musculoskeletal system : foundations for physical rehabilitation.

Front cover
Distinctive Features
Half title page
Evolve page
Kinesiology of the Musculoskeletal System_Reprint
Copyright page
Dedication
About the Author
About the Contributors
Reviewers
Preface
	Background
	Approach
	Organization
	Distinctive Features
	Ancillary Materials
	Acknowledgments
Table of Contents
I Essential Topics of Kinesiology
	Additional Clinical Connections
	Study Questions
	1 Getting Started
		CHAPTER AT A GLANCE
		WHAT IS KINESIOLOGY?
		OVERALL PLAN OF THIS TEXTBOOK
		KINEMATICS
			Translation Compared with Rotation
			Osteokinematics
				PLANES OF MOTION
				AXIS OF ROTATION
				DEGREES OF FREEDOM
				OSTEOKINEMATICS: A MATTER OF PERSPECTIVE
			Arthrokinematics
				TYPICAL JOINT MORPHOLOGY
				FUNDAMENTAL MOVEMENTS BETWEEN JOINT SURFACES
					Roll-and-Slide Movements
					Spin
					Motions That Combine Roll-and-Slide and Spin Arthrokinematics
				PREDICTING AN ARTHROKINEMATIC PATTERN  BASED ON JOINT MORPHOLOGY
				CLOSE-PACKED AND LOOSE-PACKED POSITIONS  AT A JOINT
		KINETICS
			Musculoskeletal Forces
				IMPACT OF FORCES ON THE MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM: INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY
				INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FORCES
			Musculoskeletal Torques
			Muscle and Joint Interaction
				TYPES OF MUSCLE ACTIVATION
				MUSCLE ACTION AT A JOINT
					Terminology Related to the Actions of Muscles
			Musculoskeletal Levers
				THREE CLASSES OF LEVERS
					First-Class Lever
					Second-Class Lever
					Third-Class Lever
				MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE
					Dictating the Trade-off between Force and Distance
		SUMMARY
		GLOSSARY
		REFERENCES
		STUDY QUESTIONS
	2 Basic Structure and Function of Human Joints
		CHAPTER AT A GLANCE
		CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS BASED  ON MOVEMENT POTENTIAL
			Synarthroses
			Diarthroses: Synovial Joints
		CLASSIFICATION OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS  BASED ON MECHANICAL ANALOGY
			Simplifying the Classification of Synovial Joints: Ovoid and Saddle Joints
		AXIS OF ROTATION
		HISTOLOGIC ORGANIZATION OF PERIARTICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUES
			Fibrous Proteins
			Ground Substance
			Cells
		TYPES OF PERIARTICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUES
			Dense Connective Tissue
			Articular Cartilage
			Fibrocartilage
		BONE
		SOME EFFECTS OF IMMOBILIZATION  ON THE STRENGTH OF PERIARTICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE AND BONE
		BRIEF OVERVIEW OF JOINT PATHOLOGY
		SUMMARY
		REFERENCES
		STUDY QUESTIONS
	3 Muscle: the Primary Stabilizer and Mover  of the Skeletal System
		CHAPTER AT A GLANCE
		MUSCLE AS A SKELETAL STABILIZER: GENERATING AN APPROPRIATE AMOUNT  OF FORCE AT A GIVEN LENGTH
			Introduction to the Structural  Organization of Skeletal Muscle
			Muscle Morphology
			Muscle Architecture
			Muscle and Tendon: Generation of Force
				PASSIVE LENGTH-TENSION CURVE
				ACTIVE LENGTH-TENSION CURVE
				SUMMATION OF ACTIVE FORCE AND PASSIVE TENSION: THE TOTAL LENGTH-TENSION CURVE
			Isometric Muscle Force: Development  of the Internal Torque–Joint Angle Curve
		MUSCLE AS A SKELETAL MOVER:  FORCE MODULATION
			Modulating Force through Concentric or Eccentric Activation: Introduction to the Force-Velocity Relationship of Muscle
				FORCE-VELOCITY CURVE
				POWER AND WORK: ADDITIONAL CONCEPTS RELATED  TO THE FORCE-VELOCITY RELATIONSHIP OF MUSCLE
			Activating Muscle via the Nervous System
				RECRUITMENT
				RATE CODING
		INTRODUCTION TO ELECTROMYOGRAPHY
			Recording of Electromyography
			Analysis and Normalization of Electromyography
			Electromyographic Amplitude  during Muscular Activation
		CAUSES OF MUSCLE FATIGUE  IN HEALTHY PERSONS
		CHANGES IN MUSCLE WITH STRENGTH TRAINING, REDUCED USE, AND ADVANCED AGE
			Changes in Muscle with Strength Training
			Changes in Muscle with Reduced Use
			Changes in Muscle with Advanced Age
		SUMMARY
		REFERENCES
		STUDY QUESTIONS
	4 Biomechanical Principles
		NEWTON’S LAWS: UNDERLYING  PRINCIPLES OF BIOMECHANICS
			Newton’s Laws of Motion
				NEWTON’S FIRST LAW: LAW OF INERTIA
				NEWTON’S SECOND LAW: LAW OF ACCELERATION
					Force (Torque)-Acceleration Relationship
					Impulse-Momentum Relationship
					Work-Energy Relationship
				NEWTON’S THIRD LAW: LAW OF ACTION-REACTION
		INTRODUCTION TO MOVEMENT ANALYSIS: SETTING THE STAGE FOR ANALYSIS
			Anthropometry
			Free Body Diagram
				STEPS FOR CONSTRUCTING THE FREE BODY DIAGRAM
				SPATIAL REFERENCE FRAMES
			Forces and Torques
				GRAPHIC AND MATHEMATIC METHODS  OF FORCE ANALYSIS
					Composition of Forces
					Resolution of Forces
				CONTRASTING INTERNAL VERSUS EXTERNAL  FORCES AND TORQUES
				INFLUENCE OF CHANGING THE ANGLE OF THE JOINT
				COMPARING TWO METHODS FOR DETERMINING  TORQUE AROUND A JOINT
					Internal Torque
					External Torque
				MANUALLY APPLYING EXTERNAL TORQUES DURING EXERCISE AND STRENGTH TESTING
		INTRODUCTION TO BIOMECHANICS:  FINDING THE SOLUTIONS
			Static Analysis
				GUIDELINES FOR PROBLEM SOLVING
					Problem 1
						Resolving Known Forces into X and Y Components
						Solving for Internal Torque and Muscle Force
						Solving for Joint Reaction Force
						Clinical Questions Related to Problem 1
					Problem 2
						Resolving Known Forces into X and Y Components
						Solving for Internal Torque and Muscle Force
						Solving for Joint Reaction Force
						Clinical Questions Related to Problem 2
					Problem 3
						Resolving Known Forces into X and Y Components
						Solving for Internal Torque and Muscle Force
						Solving for Joint Reaction Force
						Clinical Questions Related to Problem 3
			Dynamic Analysis
				KINEMATIC MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
					Electrogoniometer
					Accelerometer
					Imaging Techniques
					Electromagnetic Tracking Devices
				KINETIC MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
					Mechanical Devices
					Transducers
					Electromechanical Devices
		SUMMARY
		Additional Clinical Connections
		REFERENCES
		STUDY QUESTIONS
	Appendix  I Trigonometry Review and Additional Biomechanical Problems
		Part A: Basic Review of Right Angle  Trigonometry
		Part B: Additional Biomechanical Problems
			Problem 1
				CLINICAL QUESTIONS
			Problem 2
				CLINICAL QUESTIONS
II Upper Extremity
	Additional Clinical Connections
	Study Questions
	5 Shoulder Complex
		CHAPTER AT A GLANCE
		OSTEOLOGY
			Sternum
			Clavicle
			Scapula
			Proximal-to-Mid Humerus
		ARTHROLOGY
			Sternoclavicular Joint
				GENERAL FEATURES
				PERIARTICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
				KINEMATICS
					Elevation and Depression
					Protraction and Retraction
					Axial (Longitudinal) Rotation of the Clavicle
			Acromioclavicular Joint
				GENERAL FEATURES
				PERIARTICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
				KINEMATICS
					Upward and Downward Rotation
					Horizontal and Sagittal Plane “Rotational Adjustments” at the Acromioclavicular Joint
			Scapulothoracic Joint
				KINEMATICS
					Elevation and Depression
					Protraction and Retraction
					Upward and Downward Rotation
			Glenohumeral Joint
				GENERAL FEATURES
				PERIARTICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE AND OTHER SUPPORTING STRUCTURES
					Capsular Ligaments
					Rotator Cuff Muscles and Long Head of the Biceps Brachii
					Glenoid Labrum
				SCAPULOTHORACIC POSTURE AND ITS EFFECT  ON STATIC STABILITY
				CORACOACROMIAL ARCH AND ASSOCIATED BURSA
				KINEMATICS
					Abduction and Adduction
						Importance of Roll-and-Slide Arthrokinematics  at the Glenohumeral Joint
					Flexion and Extension
					Internal and External Rotation
			Overall Kinematics of Shoulder Abduction: Establishing the Six Kinematic Principles  of the Shoulder Complex
				SCAPULOHUMERAL RHYTHM
				STERNOCLAVICULAR AND ACROMIOCLAVICULAR JOINTS DURING FULL ABDUCTION
		MUSCLE AND JOINT INTERACTION
			Innervation of the Muscles and Joints of the Shoulder Complex
				INTRODUCTION TO THE BRACHIAL PLEXUS
				INNERVATION OF MUSCLE
				SENSORY INNERVATION TO THE JOINTS
			Action of the Shoulder Muscles
			Muscles of the Scapulothoracic Joint
				ELEVATORS
				DEPRESSORS
				PROTRACTORS
				RETRACTORS
				UPWARD AND DOWNWARD ROTATORS
			Muscles That Elevate the Arm
				MUSCLES THAT ELEVATE THE ARM  AT THE GLENOHUMERAL JOINT
				UPWARD ROTATORS AT THE SCAPULOTHORACIC JOINT
					Trapezius and Serratus Anterior Interaction during Upward Rotation of the Scapula
					Paralysis of the Upward Rotators of the Scapulothoracic Joint
						Trapezius Paralysis
						Serratus Anterior Paralysis
				FUNCTION OF THE ROTATOR CUFF MUSCLES DURING ELEVATION OF THE ARM
					Regulators of Dynamic Stability at the Glenohumeral Joint
					Active Controllers of the Arthrokinematics  at the Glenohumeral Joint
			Muscles That Adduct and Extend the Shoulder
			Muscles That Internally and Externally Rotate  the Shoulder
				INTERNAL ROTATOR MUSCLES
				EXTERNAL ROTATOR MUSCLES
		SYNOPSIS
		Additional Clinical Connections
		REFERENCES
		STUDY QUESTIONS
	6 Elbow and Forearm
		CHAPTER AT A GLANCE
		OSTEOLOGY
			Mid-to-Distal Humerus
			Ulna
			Radius
		ARTHROLOGY
			Joints of the Elbow
				GENERAL FEATURES OF THE HUMERO-ULNAR  AND HUMERORADIAL JOINTS
					Normal “Valgus Angle” of the Elbow
				PERIARTICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
				KINEMATICS
					Functional Considerations of Flexion and Extension
					Arthrokinematics at the Humero-Ulnar Joint
					Arthrokinematics at the Humeroradial Joint
			Structure and Function of  the Interosseous Membrane
			Joints of the Forearm
				GENERAL FEATURES OF THE PROXIMAL AND DISTAL RADIO-ULNAR JOINTS
				JOINT STRUCTURE AND PERIARTICULAR  CONNECTIVE TISSUE
					Proximal Radio-Ulnar Joint
					Distal Radio-Ulnar Joint
						Introduction to the Triangular Fibrocartilage Complex
				KINEMATICS
					Functional Considerations of Pronation and Supination
					Arthrokinematics at the Proximal and Distal Radio-Ulnar Joints
						Supination
						Pronation
					Humeroradial Joint: a “Shared” Joint between  the Elbow and the Forearm
					Pronation and Supination with the Radius and Hand Held Fixed
		MUSCLE AND JOINT INTERACTION
			Neuroanatomy Overview: Paths  of the Musculocutaneous, Radial, Median,  and Ulnar Nerves throughout the Elbow,  Forearm, Wrist, and Hand
			Innervation of Muscles and Joints  of the Elbow and Forearm
				INNERVATION OF MUSCLE
				SENSORY INNERVATION OF JOINTS
					Humero-Ulnar and Humeroradial Joints
					Proximal and Distal Radio-Ulnar Joints
			Function of the Elbow Muscles
				ELBOW FLEXORS
					Individual Muscle Action of the Elbow Flexors
					Torque Generated by the Elbow Flexor Muscles
					Polyarticular Biceps Brachii: a Physiologic Advantage of Combining Elbow Flexion with Shoulder Extension
				ELBOW EXTENSORS
					Muscular Components
					Electromyographic Analysis of Elbow Extension
					Torque Generation by the Elbow Extensors
			Function of the Supinator and Pronator Muscles
				SUPINATOR MUSCLES
					Supinator versus Biceps Brachii
				PRONATOR MUSCLES
					Pronator Teres versus Pronator Quadratus
		SYNOPSIS
		Additional Clinical Connections
		REFERENCES
		STUDY QUESTIONS
	7 Wrist
		CHAPTER AT A GLANCE
		OSTEOLOGY
			Distal Forearm
			Carpal Bones
				SCAPHOID
				LUNATE
				TRIQUETRUM
				PISIFORM
				CAPITATE
				TRAPEZIUM
				TRAPEZOID
				HAMATE
			Carpal Tunnel
		ARTHROLOGY
			Joint Structure and Ligaments of the Wrist
				JOINT STRUCTURE
					Radiocarpal Joint
					Midcarpal Joint
				WRIST LIGAMENTS
					Extrinsic Ligaments
					Intrinsic Ligaments
			Kinematics of Wrist Motion
				OSTEOKINEMATICS
				ARTHROKINEMATICS
					Wrist Extension and Flexion
						Dynamic Interaction within the Joints  of the Central Column of the Wrist
					Ulnar and Radial Deviation of the Wrist
						Dynamic Interaction between the Radiocarpal and Midcarpal Joints
						Additional Arthrokinematics Involving  the Proximal Row of Carpal Bones
			Carpal Instability
				ROTATIONAL COLLAPSE OF THE WRIST
				ULNAR TRANSLOCATION OF THE CARPUS
		MUSCLE AND JOINT INTERACTION
			Innervation of the Wrist Muscles and Joints
				INNERVATION OF MUSCLE
				SENSORY INNERVATION OF THE JOINTS
			Function of the Muscles at the Wrist
				FUNCTION OF THE WRIST EXTENSORS
					Muscular Anatomy
					Biomechanical Assessment of Wrist Muscles’ Action  and Torque Potential
					Wrist Extensor Activity while Making a Fist
				FUNCTION OF THE WRIST FLEXORS
					Muscular Anatomy
					Functional Considerations
				FUNCTION OF THE RADIAL AND ULNAR DEVIATORS
		SYNOPSIS
		Additional Clinical Connections
		REFERENCES
		STUDY QUESTIONS
	8 Hand
		CHAPTER AT A GLANCE
		TERMINOLOGY
		OSTEOLOGY
			Metacarpals
			Phalanges
			Arches of the Hand
		ARTHROLOGY
			Carpometacarpal Joints
				SECOND THROUGH FIFTH CARPOMETACARPAL JOINTS
					General Features and Ligamentous Support
					Joint Structure and Kinematics
				CARPOMETACARPAL JOINT OF THE THUMB
					Capsule and Ligaments of the Thumb Carpometacarpal Joint
					Saddle Joint Structure
					Kinematics
						Abduction and Adduction at the Thumb Carpometacarpal Joint
						Flexion and Extension at the Thumb Carpometacarpal Joint
						Opposition of the Thumb Carpometacarpal Joint
			Metacarpophalangeal Joints
				FINGERS
					General Features and Ligaments
					Kinematics
						Osteokinematics
						Arthrokinematics
				THUMB
					General Features and Ligaments
			Interphalangeal Joints
				FINGERS
					General Features and Ligaments
					Kinematics
				THUMB
		MUSCLE AND JOINT INTERACTION
			Innervation of Muscles, Skin, and Joints of the Hand
				MUSCLE AND SKIN INNERVATION
				SENSORY INNERVATION TO THE JOINTS
			Muscular Function of the Hand
				EXTRINSIC FLEXORS OF THE DIGITS
					Anatomy and Joint Action of the Extrinsic Flexors of the Digits
					Anatomy and Function of the Flexor Pulleys
					Role of Proximal Stabilizer Muscles during Active Finger Flexion
					Passive Finger Flexion via “Tenodesis Action”  of the Extrinsic Digital Flexors
				EXTRINSIC EXTENSORS OF THE FINGERS
					Muscular Anatomy
						Extensor Mechanism of the Fingers
					Action of the Extrinsic Finger Extensors
				EXTRINSIC EXTENSORS OF THE THUMB
					Anatomic Considerations
					Functional Considerations
				INTRINSIC MUSCLES OF THE HAND
					Muscles of the Thenar Eminence
						Anatomic Considerations
						Functional Considerations
						Implications of Median Nerve Injury
					Muscles of the Hypothenar Eminence
						Anatomic Considerations
						Functional Considerations
					Adductor Pollicis Muscle
					Lumbricals and Interosseus Muscles
			Interaction of the Extrinsic and Intrinsic Muscles  of the Fingers
				OPENING THE HAND: FINGER EXTENSION
					Primary Muscular Activity
					Function of Wrist Flexors during Finger Extension
				CLOSING THE HAND: FINGER FLEXION
					Primary Muscle Action
					Function of Wrist Extensors during Finger Flexion
		HAND AS AN EFFECTOR ORGAN
		JOINT DEFORMITIES TYPICALLY CAUSED  BY RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS
			Zigzag Deformity of the Thumb
			Destruction of the Metacarpophalangeal  Joints of the Finger
				PALMAR DISLOCATION OF THE  METACARPOPHALANGEAL JOINT
				ULNAR DRIFT
			Zigzag Deformities of the Fingers
				SWAN-NECK DEFORMITY
				BOUTONNIERE DEFORMITY
		SYNOPSIS
		Additional Clinical Connections
		REFERENCES
		STUDY QUESTIONS
	Appendix II Reference Materials for Muscle Attachments and Innervation  of the Upper Extremity
		Part A: Spinal Nerve Root Innervation of the Muscles of the Upper Extremity
		Part B: Five Major Nerves and Their  Motor Innervation Pattern throughout  the Upper Extremity
		Part C: Key Muscles for Testing the Function of Spinal Nerve Roots (C5 to T1)
		Part D: Dermatomes of the Upper Extremity
		Part E: Attachments and Innervation  of the Muscles of the Upper Extremity
			SHOULDER MUSCULATURE
				Coracobrachialis
				Deltoid
				Infraspinatus
				Latissimus Dorsi
				Levator Scapula
				Pectoralis Major
				Pectoralis Minor
				Rhomboid Major and Minor
				Serratus Anterior
				Subclavius
				Subscapularis
				Supraspinatus
				Teres Major
				Teres Minor
				Trapezius
			ELBOW AND FOREARM MUSCULATURE
				Anconeus
				Biceps Brachii
				Brachialis
				Brachioradialis
				Pronator Teres
				Pronator Quadratus
				Supinator
				Triceps Brachii
			WRIST MUSCULATURE
				Extensor Carpi Radialis Brevis
				Extensor Carpi Radialis Longus
				Extensor Carpi Ulnaris
				Flexor Carpi Radialis
				Flexor Carpi Ulnaris
				Palmaris Longus
			EXTRINSIC HAND MUSCULATURE
				Abductor Pollicis Longus
				Extensor Digitorum
				Extensor Digiti Minimi
				Extensor Indicis
				Extensor Pollicis Brevis
				Extensor Pollicis Longus
				Flexor Digitorum Profundus
				Flexor Digitorum Superficialis
				Flexor Pollicis Longus
			INTRINSIC HAND MUSCULATURE
				Abductor Digiti Minimi
				Abductor Pollicis Brevis
				Adductor Pollicis
				Dorsal Interossei
				Flexor Digiti Minimi
				Flexor Pollicis Brevis
				Lumbricals
				Opponens Digiti Minimi
				Opponens Pollicis
				Palmaris Brevis
				Palmar Interossei
III Axial Skeleton
	Additional Clinical Connections
	Study Questions
	9 Axial Skeleton: Osteology and Arthrology
		CHAPTER AT A GLANCE
		OSTEOLOGY
			Components within the Axial Skeleton
				CRANIUM
					Temporal and Occipital Bones
				VERTEBRAE: BUILDING BLOCKS OF THE SPINE
				RIBS
				STERNUM
			Vertebral Column as a Whole
				NORMAL CURVATURES WITHIN THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
				LINE OF GRAVITY PASSING THROUGH THE BODY
				LIGAMENTOUS SUPPORT OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
			Regional Osteologic Features  of the Vertebral Column
				CERVICAL REGION
					Typical Cervical Vertebrae (C3 to C6)
					Atypical Cervical Vertebrae (C1, C2, and C7)
						Atlas (C1)
						Axis (C2)
						“Vertebra Prominens” (C7)
				THORACIC REGION
					Typical Thoracic Vertebrae (T2 to T9)
						Atypical Thoracic Vertebrae (T1 and T10 to T12)
				LUMBAR REGION
				SACRUM
				COCCYX
		ARTHROLOGY
			Typical Intervertebral Junction
				TERMINOLOGY DESCRIBING MOVEMENT
				STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE APOPHYSEAL JOINTS
				STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE INTERBODY JOINTS
					Structural Considerations of the Lumbar Intervertebral Discs
					Vertebral Endplates
					Intervertebral Disc as a Hydrostatic Pressure Distributor
					In Vivo Pressure Measurements from the Nucleus Pulposus
					Diurnal Fluctuations in the Water Content  within the Intervertebral Discs
		REGIONAL ANATOMY AND KINEMATICS  ACROSS THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
			Introduction to Spinal Coupling
			Craniocervical Region
				ANATOMY OF JOINTS
					Atlanto-occipital Joint
					Atlanto-axial Joint Complex
						Tectorial Membrane and the Alar Ligaments
					Intracervical Apophyseal Joints (C2 to C7)
				SAGITTAL PLANE KINEMATICS
					Osteokinematics of Flexion and Extension
					Arthrokinematics of Flexion and Extension
						Atlanto-occipital Joint
						Atlanto-axial Joint Complex
						Intracervical Articulations (C2 to C7)
					Osteokinematics of Protraction and Retraction
				HORIZONTAL PLANE KINEMATICS
					Osteokinematics of Axial Rotation
					Arthrokinematics of Axial Rotation
						Atlanto-axial Joint Complex
						Intracervical Articulations (C2 to C7)
				FRONTAL PLANE KINEMATICS
					Osteokinematics of Lateral Flexion
					Arthrokinematics of Lateral Flexion
						Atlanto-occipital Joint
						Intracervical Articulations (C2 to C7)
				SPINAL COUPLING BETWEEN LATERAL FLEXION  AND AXIAL ROTATION
			Thoracic Region
				ANATOMY OF THORACIC ARTICULAR STRUCTURES
				KINEMATICS
					Kinematics of Flexion and Extension
					Kinematics of Axial Rotation
					Kinematics of Lateral Flexion
			Lumbar Region
				ANATOMY OF THE ARTICULAR STRUCTURES
					L1 to L4 Region
					L5-S1 Junction
				KINEMATICS
					Sagittal Plane Kinematics: Flexion and Extension
						Flexion of the Lumbar Region
						Extension of the Lumbar Region
						Lumbopelvic Rhythm during Trunk Flexion and Extension
							Variations of Lumbopelvic Rhythms during Trunk Flexion from a Standing Position: a Kinematic Analysis.
							Lumbopelvic Rhythm during Trunk Extension from a Forward Bent Position: a Muscular Analysis.
						Effect of Pelvic Tilting on the Kinematics of the Lumbar Spine
							Kinesiologic Correlations between Anterior Pelvic Tilt and Increased Lumbar Lordosis.
							Kinesiologic Correlations between Posterior Pelvic Tilt and Decreased Lumbar Lordosis.
					Horizontal Plane Kinematics: Axial Rotation
					Frontal Plane Kinematics: Lateral Flexion
					Sitting Posture and Its Effect on Alignment within the Lumbar and Craniocervical Regions
		SUMMARY OF THE KINEMATICS  WITHIN THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
		SACROILIAC JOINTS
			Anatomic Considerations
				JOINT STRUCTURE
				LIGAMENTS
				INNERVATION
				THORACOLUMBAR FASCIA
			Kinematics
				FUNCTIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
					Stress Relief
					Stability during Load Transfer: Mechanics of Generating  a Nutation Torque at the Sacroiliac Joints
						Stabilizing Effect of Gravity
						Stabilizing Effect of Ligaments and Muscles
		SYNOPSIS
		Additional Clinical Connections
		REFERENCES
		STUDY QUESTIONS
	10 Axial Skeleton:
		CHAPTER AT A GLANCE
		INNERVATION OF THE MUSCLES AND JOINTS WITHIN THE TRUNK AND CRANIOCERVICAL REGIONS
			Ventral Ramus Innervation
				PLEXUS
				INDIVIDUAL NAMED NERVES
					Intercostal Nerves (T1 to T12)
					Recurrent Meningeal Nerves
			Dorsal Ramus Innervation
		TRUNK AND CRANIOCERVICAL REGIONS
			Production of Internal Torque
			Special Considerations for the Study of Muscle Actions within the Axial Skeleton
			Muscles of the Trunk: Anatomy  and Their Individual Actions
				SET 1: MUSCLES OF THE POSTERIOR TRUNK  (“BACK” MUSCLES)
					Muscles in the Superficial and Intermediate Layers of the Back
					Muscles in the Deep Layer of the Back
						Erector Spinae Group
							Spinalis Muscles.
							Longissimus Muscles.
							Iliocostalis Muscles.
							Summary.
						Transversospinal Muscles
							Semispinalis Muscles.
							Multifidi.
							Rotatores.
							Summary.
						Short Segmental Group of Muscles
							Summary.
				SET 2: MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR-LATERAL TRUNK (“ABDOMINAL” MUSCLES)
					Formation of the Rectus Sheaths and Linea Alba
					Anatomy of the Abdominal Muscles
					Actions of the Abdominal Muscles
						Comparing Trunk Flexor versus Trunk Extensor Peak Torque
				SET 3: ADDITIONAL MUSCLES  (ILIOPSOAS AND QUADRATUS LUMBORUM)
					Iliopsoas
						Function of the Psoas Major at the Lumbosacral Region
					Quadratus Lumborum
			Muscles of the Trunk: Functional Interactions among Muscles
				MUSCULAR-BASED STABILITY OF THE TRUNK
					Intrinsic Muscular Stabilizers of the Trunk
					Extrinsic Muscular Stabilizers of the Trunk
				PERFORMING A STANDARD SIT-UP MOVEMENT
			Muscles of the Craniocervical Region: Anatomy  and Their Individual Actions
				SET 1: MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR-LATERAL CRANIOCERVICAL REGION
					Sternocleidomastoid
					Scalenes
					Longus Colli and Longus Capitis
					Rectus Capitis Anterior and Rectus Capitis Lateralis
				SET 2: MUSCLES OF THE POSTERIOR  CRANIOCERVICAL REGION
					Splenius Cervicis and Capitis
					Suboccipital Muscles
			Muscles of the Craniocervical Region: Functional Interactions among Muscles That Cross  the Craniocervical Region
				STABILIZING THE CRANIOCERVICAL REGION
				PRODUCING EXTENSIVE AND WELL-COORDINATED MOVEMENTS OF THE HEAD AND NECK: OPTIMIZING THE PLACEMENT OF THE EYES, EARS, AND NOSE
		SELECTED BIOMECHANICAL ISSUES OF LIFTING:  A FOCUS ON REDUCING BACK INJURY
			Muscular Mechanics of Extension  of the Low Back during Lifting
				ESTIMATING THE MAGNITUDE OF FORCE IMPOSED  ON THE LOW BACK DURING LIFTING
				WAYS TO REDUCE THE FORCE DEMANDS  ON THE BACK MUSCLES DURING LIFTING
				ROLE OF INCREASING INTRA-ABDOMINAL  PRESSURE DURING LIFTING
				ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF EXTENSION TORQUE USED  FOR LIFTING
					Passive Tension Generation from Stretching the Posterior Ligamentous System
					Muscular-Generated Tension Transferred  through the Thoracolumbar Fascia
			Summary of Factors That Likely Contribute  to Safe Lifting
		SYNOPSIS
		Additional Clinical Connections
		REFERENCES
		STUDY QUESTIONS
	11 Kinesiology of Mastication and Ventilation
		CHAPTER AT A GLANCE
		PART 1: MASTICATION
			OSTEOLOGY AND TEETH
				Regional Surface Anatomy
				Individual Bones
					MANDIBLE
					MAXILLA
					TEMPORAL BONE
					ZYGOMATIC BONE
					SPHENOID BONE
					HYOID BONE
				Teeth
			ARTHROLOGY OF  THE TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT
				Osseous Structure
					MANDIBULAR CONDYLE
					MANDIBULAR FOSSA
				Articular Disc
				Capsular and Ligamentous Structures
					FIBROUS CAPSULE
					LATERAL LIGAMENT
					ACCESSORY LIGAMENTS
				Osteokinematics
					PROTRUSION AND RETRUSION
					LATERAL EXCURSION
					DEPRESSION AND ELEVATION
				Arthrokinematics
					PROTRUSION AND RETRUSION
					LATERAL EXCURSION
					DEPRESSION AND ELEVATION
			MUSCLE AND JOINT INTERACTION
				Innervation of the Muscles and Joints
				Muscular Anatomy and Function
					PRIMARY MUSCLES OF MASTICATION
						Masseter
						Temporalis
						Medial Pterygoid
						Lateral Pterygoid
					SECONDARY MUSCLES OF MASTICATION
					SUMMARY OF INDIVIDUAL MUSCLE ACTION
					MUSCULAR CONTROL OF OPENING  AND CLOSING OF THE MOUTH
						Opening the Mouth
						Closing the Mouth
			TEMPOROMANDIBULAR DISORDERS
			SYNOPSIS
		PART 2: VENTILATION
			ARTHROLOGY
				Thorax
				Articulations within the Thorax
					MANUBRIOSTERNAL JOINT
					STERNOCOSTAL JOINTS
					INTERCHONDRAL JOINTS
					COSTOCORPOREAL AND COSTOTRANSVERSE JOINTS
					THORACIC INTERVERTEBRAL JOINTS
				Changes in Intrathoracic Volume during Ventilation
					VERTICAL CHANGES
					ANTERIOR-POSTERIOR AND MEDIAL-LATERAL CHANGES
			MUSCULAR ACTIONS DURING VENTILATION
				Muscles of Quiet Inspiration
					DIAPHRAGM MUSCLE
					SCALENE MUSCLES
					INTERCOSTALES MUSCLES
						Anatomy
						Function of the Intercostales Externi and Interni Muscles
				Muscles of Forced Inspiration
				Muscles of Forced Expiration
					ABDOMINAL MUSCLES
					TRANSVERSUS THORACIS AND INTERCOSTALES INTERNI
			SYNOPSIS
			Additional Clinical Connections
		REFERENCES
		STUDY QUESTIONS
			PART 1: MASTICATION
			PART 2: VENTILATION
	Appendix  III Reference Materials for Muscle Attachments and Innervation  of the Axial Skeleton
		Part A: Formation of the Cauda Equina
		Part B: Thoracic Dermatomes of the Trunk
		Part C: Attachments and Innervation of the Muscles of the Axial Skeleton
			MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK
				Set 1: Muscles of The Posterior Trunk
				Erector Spinae Group (Iliocostalis, Longissimus,  and Spinalis Muscles)
					Iliocostalis Lumborum
					Iliocostalis Thoracis
					Iliocostalis Cervicis
					Longissimus Thoracis
					Longissimus Cervicis
					Longissimus Capitis
					Spinalis Thoracis
					Spinalis Cervicis
					Spinalis Capitis (Blends with Semispinalis Capitis)
					Transversospinal Group (Multifidi, Rotatores,  and Semispinalis Muscles)
						Multifidi
						Rotatores: Longus and Brevis
						Semispinalis Thoracis
						Semispinalis Cervicis
						Semispinalis Capitis
						Short Segmental Group (Interspinalis and  Intertransversarius Muscles)
							Interspinalis Muscles
							Intertransversarius Muscles
				Set 2: Muscles of the Anterior-lateral Trunk:  “Abdominal” Muscles
					Obliquus Externus Abdominis
					Obliquus Internus Abdominis
					Rectus Abdominis
					Transversus Abdominis
			MUSCLES OF THE CRANIOCERVICAL REGION
				Set 1: Muscles of the Anterior-lateral Craniocervical Region
					Longus Capitis
					Longus Colli
						Superior Oblique Portion
						Vertical Portion
						Inferior Oblique Portion
						Rectus Capitis Anterior
						Rectus Capitis Lateralis
						Scalenes
							Scalenus Anterior
							Scalenus Medius
							Scalenus Posterior
							Sternocleidomastoid
				Set 2: Muscles of the Posterior Craniocervical Region
					Splenius Capitis
					Splenius Cervicis
					Suboccipital Muscles
						Obliquus Capitis Inferior
						Obliquus Capitis Superior
						Rectus Capitis Posterior Major
						Rectus Capitis Posterior Minor
			MISCELLANEOUS: QUADRATUS LUMBORUM
				Quadratus Lumborum
			PRIMARY MUSCLES OF MASTICATION
				Masseter: Combined Superficial and Deep Heads
				Temporalis
				Medial Pterygoid: Combined Superficial and Deep Heads
				Lateral Pterygoid (Superior Head)
				Lateral Pterygoid (Inferior Head)
			SUPRAHYOID MUSCLES
				Digastric: Posterior Belly
				Digastric: Anterior Belly
				Geniohyoid
				Mylohyoid
				Stylohyoid
			INFRAHYOID MUSCLES
				Omohyoid
				Sternohyoid
				Sternothyroid
				Thyrohyoid
			MUSCLES RELATED PRIMARILY TO VENTILATION
				Diaphragm
					Inferior Attachments
					Superior Attachment
					Intercostales Externi
						Intercostales Interni
							Intercostales Intimi
								Levatores Costarum (Longus and Brevis)
								Serratus Posterior Inferior
								Serratus Posterior Superior
								Transversus Thoracis
IV Lower Extremity
	Additional Clinical Connections
	Study Questions
	12 Hip
		CHAPTER AT A GLANCE
		OSTEOLOGY
			Innominate
				ILIUM
				PUBIS
				ISCHIUM
				ACETABULUM
			Femur
				SHAPE OF THE PROXIMAL FEMUR
					Angle of Inclination
					Femoral Torsion
				INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE PROXIMAL FEMUR
					Compact and Cancellous Bone
		ARTHROLOGY
			Functional Anatomy of the Hip Joint
				FEMORAL HEAD
				ACETABULUM
				ACETABULAR LABRUM
				ACETABULAR ALIGNMENT
					Center-Edge Angle
					Acetabular Anteversion Angle
				CAPSULE AND LIGAMENTS OF THE HIP
					Close-Packed Position of the Hip
			Osteokinematics
				FEMORAL-ON-PELVIC OSTEOKINEMATICS
					Rotation of the Femur in the Sagittal Plane
					Rotation of the Femur in the Frontal Plane
					Rotation of the Femur in the Horizontal Plane
				PELVIC-ON-FEMORAL OSTEOKINEMATICS
					Lumbopelvic Rhythm
					Pelvic Rotation in the Sagittal Plane: Anterior  and Posterior Pelvic Tilting
					Pelvic Rotation in the Frontal Plane
					Pelvic Rotation in the Horizontal Plane
			Arthrokinematics
		MUSCLE AND JOINT INTERACTION
			Innervation of the Muscles and Joint
				INNERVATION OF MUSCLES
					Lumbar Plexus
					Sacral Plexus
				SENSORY INNERVATION OF THE HIP
			Muscular Function at the Hip
				HIP FLEXOR MUSCLES
					Anatomy and Individual Action
					Overall Function
						Pelvic-on-Femoral Hip Flexion: Anterior Pelvic Tilt
						Femoral-on-Pelvic Hip Flexion
				HIP ADDUCTOR MUSCLES
					Functional Anatomy
					Overall Function
						Frontal Plane Function
						Sagittal Plane Function
				HIP INTERNAL ROTATOR MUSCLES
					Overall Function
					Biomechanics of the Adductor Muscles as Internal  Rotators of the Hip
				HIP EXTENSOR MUSCLES
					Anatomy and Individual Action
					Overall Function
						Pelvic-on-Femoral Hip Extension
							Hip Extensors Performing a Posterior Pelvic Tilt.
							Hip Extensors Controlling a Forward Lean of the Body.
						Femoral-on-Pelvic Hip Extension
				HIP ABDUCTOR MUSCLES
					Anatomy and Individual Action
					Hip Abductor Mechanism: Control of Frontal Plane Stability  of the Pelvis during Walking
					Hip Abductor Mechanism: Role in the Production  of Compression Force at the Hip
					Maximal Abduction Torque Varies According to Hip Joint Angle
				HIP EXTERNAL ROTATOR MUSCLES
					Functional Anatomy of the “Short External Rotators”
					Overall Function
				MAXIMAL TORQUE PRODUCED BY THE HIP MUSCLES
		EXAMPLES OF HIP DISEASE: RATIONALE  FOR SELECTED THERAPEUTIC AND SURGICAL INTERVENTIONS
			Fracture of the Hip
			Osteoarthritis of the Hip
			Therapeutic Intervention for a Painful  or Mechanically Unstable Hip
				USING A CANE AND PROPER METHODS  FOR CARRYING EXTERNAL LOADS
			Surgical Intervention after Fracture or Osteoarthritis
				BIOMECHANICAL CONSEQUENCES OF COXA VARA  AND COXA VALGA
		SYNOPSIS
		Additional Clinical Connections
		REFERENCES
		STUDY QUESTIONS
	13 Knee
		CHAPTER AT A GLANCE
		OSTEOLOGY
			Distal Femur
			Proximal Tibia and Fibula
			Patella
		ARTHROLOGY
			General Anatomic and Alignment Considerations
			Capsule and Reinforcing Ligaments
			Synovial Membrane, Bursae, and Fat Pads
			Tibiofemoral Joint
				MENISCI
					Anatomic Considerations
					Functional Considerations
					Common Mechanisms of Injury
				OSTEOKINEMATICS AT THE TIBIOFEMORAL JOINT
					Flexion and Extension
					Internal and External (Axial) Rotation
				ARTHROKINEMATICS AT THE TIBIOFEMORAL JOINT
					Extension of the Knee
						“Screw-Home” Rotation of the Knee
					Flexion of the Knee
					Internal and External (Axial) Rotation of the Knee
				MEDIAL AND LATERAL COLLATERAL LIGAMENTS
					Anatomic Considerations
					Functional Considerations
				ANTERIOR AND POSTERIOR CRUCIATE LIGAMENTS
					General Considerations
				ANTERIOR CRUCIATE LIGAMENT
					Anatomy and Function
					Common Mechanisms of Injury
				POSTERIOR CRUCIATE LIGAMENT
					Anatomy and Function
					Common Mechanisms of Injury
			Patellofemoral Joint
				PATELLOFEMORAL JOINT KINEMATICS
					Path and Area of Patellar Contact on the Femur
		MUSCLE AND JOINT INTERACTION
			Innervation of the Muscles
			Sensory Innervation of the Knee Joint
			Muscular Function at the Knee
				EXTENSORS OF THE KNEE: QUADRICEPS  FEMORIS MUSCLE
					Anatomic Considerations
					Functional Considerations
					Quadriceps Action at the Knee: Understanding  the Biomechanical Interactions between External  and Internal Torques
						External Torque Demands Placed against the Quadriceps: Contrasting “Tibial-on-Femoral” with “Femoral-on-Tibial”  Methods of Knee Extension
						Internal Torque–Joint Angle Relationship of the Quadriceps Muscle
							Functional Role of the Patella.
				PATELLOFEMORAL JOINT KINETICS
				FACTORS AFFECTING THE TRACKING OF THE PATELLA ACROSS THE PATELLOFEMORAL JOINT
					Role of the Quadriceps Muscle in Patellar Tracking
					Factors that Naturally Oppose the Lateral Pull  of the Quadriceps on the Patella
						Local Factors
						Global Factors
						Summary
				KNEE FLEXOR-ROTATOR MUSCLES
					Functional Anatomy
					Group Action of Flexor-Rotator Muscles
						Control of Tibial-on-Femoral Osteokinematics
						Control of Femoral-on-Tibial Osteokinematics
					Maximal Torque Production of the Knee Flexor-Rotator Muscles
			Abnormal Alignment of the Knee
				FRONTAL PLANE
					Genu Varum with Unicompartmental Osteoarthritis of the Knee
					Excessive Genu Valgum
				SAGITTAL PLANE
					Genu Recurvatum
		SYNOPSIS
		Additional Clinical Connections
		REFERENCES
		STUDY QUESTIONS
	14 Ankle and Foot
		CHAPTER AT A GLANCE
		OSTEOLOGY
			Basic Terms and Concepts
				NAMING THE JOINTS AND REGIONS
				OSTEOLOGIC SIMILARITIES BETWEEN THE DISTAL LEG  AND THE DISTAL ARM
			Individual Bones
				FIBULA
				DISTAL TIBIA
				TARSAL BONES
					Talus
					Calcaneus
					Navicular
					Medial, Intermediate, and Lateral Cuneiforms
					Cuboid
				RAYS OF THE FOOT
					Metatarsals
					Phalanges
		ARTHROLOGY
			Terminology Used to Describe Movements
			Structure and Function of the Joints  Associated with the Ankle
				PROXIMAL TIBIOFIBULAR JOINT
				DISTAL TIBIOFIBULAR JOINT
				TALOCRURAL JOINT
					Articular Structure
					Ligaments
					Osteokinematics
					Arthrokinematics
					Progressive Stabilization of the Talocrural Joint  throughout the Stance Phase of Gait
			Structure and Function of the Joints  Associated with the Foot
				SUBTALAR JOINT
					Articular Structure
					Ligaments
					Kinematics
					Range of Motion
				TRANSVERSE TARSAL JOINT (TALONAVICULAR AND CALCANEOCUBOID JOINTS)
					Articular Structure and Ligamentous Support
						Talonavicular Joint
						Calcaneocuboid Joint
					Kinematics
						Axes of Rotation and Corresponding Movements
						Arthrokinematics
					Medial Longitudinal Arch of the Foot
						Passive Support Mechanism of the Medial Longitudinal Arch
						Pes Planus—“Abnormally Dropped” Medial Longitudinal Arch
				COMBINED ACTION OF THE SUBTALAR  AND TRANSVERSE TARSAL JOINTS
					Early to Mid-Stance Phase of Gait:  Kinematics of Pronation at the Subtalar Joint
						Biomechanical Benefits of Limiting Pronation  during the Stance Phase
						Biomechanical Consequences of Abnormal  Pronation during the Stance Phase
					Mid-to-Late Stance Phase of Gait:  Kinematics of Supination at the Subtalar Joint
				DISTAL INTERTARSAL JOINTS
					Basic Structure and Function
						Cuneonavicular Joint
						Cuboideonavicular Joint
						Intercuneiform and Cuneocuboid Joint Complex
				TARSOMETATARSAL JOINTS
					Anatomic Considerations
					Kinematic Considerations
				INTERMETATARSAL JOINTS
					Structure and Function
				METATARSOPHALANGEAL JOINTS
					Anatomic Considerations
					Kinematic Considerations
					Deformities or Trauma Involving the Metatarsophalangeal  Joint of the Great Toe
						Hallux Limitus
						Hallux Valgus
				INTERPHALANGEAL JOINTS
				ACTION OF THE JOINTS WITHIN THE FOREFOOT  DURING THE LATE STANCE PHASE OF GAIT
		MUSCLE AND JOINT INTERACTION
			Innervation of Muscles and Joints
				INNERVATION OF MUSCLES
				SENSORY INNERVATION OF THE JOINTS
			Anatomy and Function of the Muscles
				EXTRINSIC MUSCLES
					Anterior Compartment Muscles
						Anatomy
						Joint Action
					Lateral Compartment Muscles
						Anatomy
						Joint Action
					Posterior Compartment Muscles
						Anatomy
							Superficial Group.
							Deep Group.
						Joint Action
							Activation of the Plantar Flexor and Supinator Muscles during Walking.
							Plantar Flexion Torque Generated for Propulsion.
				MUSCULAR PARALYSIS AFTER INJURY  TO THE FIBULAR OR TIBIAL NERVE
					Injury to the Common Fibular Nerve and Its Branches
					Injury to the Tibial Nerve and Its Branches
				INTRINSIC MUSCLES
					Anatomic and Functional Considerations
						Layer 1
						Layer 2
						Layer 3
						Layer 4
		SYNOPSIS
		Additional Clinical Connections
		REFERENCES
		STUDY QUESTIONS
	15 Kinesiology of Walking
		CHAPTER AT A GLANCE
		HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF GAIT ANALYSIS
		SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL DESCRIPTORS
			Gait Cycle
			Stance and Swing Phases
				SUBDIVISION OF STANCE AND SWING PHASES
		DISPLACEMENT AND CONTROL OF THE BODY’S CENTER OF MASS
			Displacement of the Center of Mass
			Kinetic and Potential Energy Considerations
		JOINT KINEMATICS
			Sagittal Plane Kinematics
				PELVIS
				HIP
				KNEE
				ANKLE (TALOCRURAL JOINT)
				FIRST TARSOMETATARSAL JOINT
				FIRST METATARSOPHALANGEAL JOINT
			Frontal Plane Kinematics
				PELVIS
				HIP
				KNEE
				ANKLE (TALOCRURAL JOINT)
				FOOT AND SUBTALAR JOINT
			Horizontal Plane Kinematics
				PELVIS
				FEMUR
				TIBIA
				HIP
				KNEE
				ANKLE AND FOOT
			Trunk and Upper Extremity Kinematics
				TRUNK
				SHOULDER
				ELBOW
		ENERGY EXPENDITURE
			Energy-Saving Strategies of Walking
				VERTICAL DISPLACEMENT OF THE CENTER OF MASS
				SIDE-TO-SIDE DISPLACEMENT OF THE CENTER OF MASS
		MUSCLE ACTIVITY
			Trunk
				ERECTOR SPINAE
				RECTUS ABDOMINIS
			Hip
				HIP EXTENSORS
				HIP FLEXORS
				HIP ABDUCTORS
				HIP ADDUCTORS AND HIP ROTATORS
			Knee
				KNEE EXTENSORS
				KNEE FLEXORS
			Ankle and Foot
				TIBIALIS ANTERIOR
				EXTENSOR DIGITORUM AND EXTENSOR HALLUCIS LONGUS
				ANKLE PLANTAR FLEXORS
				TIBIALIS POSTERIOR
				FIBULARIS MUSCLES
				INTRINSIC MUSCLES OF THE FOOT
		KINETICS
			Ground Reaction Forces
				VERTICAL FORCES
				ANTERIOR-POSTERIOR FORCES
				MEDIAL-LATERAL FORCES
			Path of the Center of Pressure
			Joint Torques and Powers
				HIP
				KNEE
				ANKLE
			Joint and Tendon Forces
		GAIT DYSFUNCTIONS
		SYNOPSIS
		Additional Clinical Connections
		REFERENCES
		STUDY QUESTIONS
	Appendix  IV Reference Materials for Muscle Attachments and  Innervation of the Lower Extremity
		Part A: Spinal Nerve Root Innervations of the Muscles of the Lower Extremity
		Part B: Key Muscles for Testing the Function  of Spinal Nerve Roots (L2 to S3)
		Part C: Dermatomes of the Lower Extremity
		Part D: Attachments and Innervation of the Muscles of the Lower Extremity
			HIP AND KNEE MUSCULATURE
				Adductor Brevis
				Adductor Longus
				Adductor Magnus
					Anterior Head
					Posterior (Extensor) Head
				Articularis Genu
				Biceps Femoris
					Long Head
					Short Head
				Gemellus Inferior
				Gemellus Superior
				Gluteus Maximus
				Gluteus Medius
				Gluteus Minimus
				Gracilis
				Iliopsoas
					Psoas Major
					Iliacus
				Obturator Externus
				Obturator Internus
				Pectineus
				Piriformis
				Popliteus
				Psoas Minor
				Quadratus Femoris
				Rectus Femoris
				Sartorius
				Semimembranosus
				Semitendinosus
				Tensor Fasciae Latae
				Vastus Intermedius
				Vastus Lateralis
				Vastus Medialis
			ANKLE AND FOOT MUSCULATURE
				Extensor Digitorum Longus
				Extensor Hallucis Longus
				Fibularis (Peroneus) Brevis
				Fibularis (Peroneus) Longus
				Fibularis (Peroneus) Tertius
				Flexor Digitorum Longus
				Flexor Hallucis Longus
				Gastrocnemius
				Plantaris
				Soleus
				Tibialis Anterior
				Tibialis Posterior
			INTRINSIC MUSCLES OF THE FOOT
				Extensor Digitorum Brevis
			LAYER 1
				Abductor Digiti Minimi
				Abductor Hallucis
				Flexor Digitorum Brevis
			LAYER 2
				Lumbricals
				Quadratus Plantae
			LAYER 3
				Adductor Hallucis
					Proximal Attachment
				Flexor Digiti Minimi
				Flexor Hallucis Brevis
			LAYER 4
				Dorsal Interossei
					Proximal Attachments
					Distal Attachments*
				Plantar Interossei
					Proximal Attachments
					Distal Attachments*
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	X
	Y
	Z