Japan and the Middle East: Foreign Policies and Interdependence

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
Notes on Contributors
Abbreviations and Acronyms
List of Figures
List of Tables
1 A Conceptualisation of Japan’s Relations with the Middle East
	1 Complex Interdependence Revisited
	2 Critical Adoption of Complex Interdependence in Middle East International Relations
		2.1 The Role of Security in Complex Interdependence
		2.2 Agenda Politics
		2.3 The Role of International Actors
	3 Methodological Approach
		3.1 Complex Interdependence through Intercultural Communication
		3.2 Interdependence through Numerous Channels and Different Agendas
		3.3 The Emergence of Japanese Interests and Security in the Middle East
			3.3.1 Energy Security
			3.3.2 Economic Interests
			3.3.3 Protection of Nationals
			3.3.4 Cultural Understanding
			3.3.5 Multilateralism
	4 Preview of Chapters
	References
2 Japan’s Relations with Saudi Arabia: The Evolution of Energy Diplomacy in Response to the Developmental Shift in the Rentier State
	1 Theoretical Framework: Evolution of Energy Diplomacy
		1.1 The First Stage: Maintaining a Friendly Diplomatic Relationship
		1.2 The Second Stage: Facilitating Investment for Economic Diversification
		1.3 The Third Stage: Advancing Educational Cooperation
		1.4 Japan and Saudi Arabia
	2 The First Stage: Maintaining a Friendly Diplomatic Relationship—After 1955
	3 The Second Stage: Facilitating Investment for Economic Diversification—After the 1970s
		3.1 The Resurgence of Investments
	4 The Third Stage: Educational Cooperation—After the 2000s
	5 Conclusions
3 Japan–UAE Relations: Establishment of Multifaceted Interdependence Based on Energy
	1 Introduction
	2 Overview of Japan–UAE Relations
		2.1 The Emergence Period (1960–1979)—Bilateral Relations Driven by the Business Community
		2.2 The Development Period (1980–1999)—Progress in Diplomatic, Economic, and Technological Cooperation Relations
		2.3 The Transformation Period (2000–2020)—The Qualitative Change in Bilateral Relations and the Coming of a New Era
	3 Development of Bilateral Relations and Citizen Exchanges Fostered by Energy Security
		3.1 The Birth of the Abu Dhabi Oil Company (ADOC)
		3.2 Japanese Oil Companies Acquired Additional Oil Concessions in Abu Dhabi
		3.3 Japan’s Import of UAE Crude Oil and the Challenge of Renewing Oil Concessions
		3.4 Multifaceted Development of Non-energy Relationships Supported by Oil Companies
	4 The Role of the UAE-Japan Society
		4.1 Activity Summary
		4.2 Development of the UAE-Japan Society As a Hub for Bilateral Exchange
		4.3 The Society’s Magazine Produced by Citizens and Its Historical Role
	5 Conclusion
	Bibliography
4 The Three Cycles of Rise and Fall in Iran–Japan Relations: From Energy Studies to Political Causal Analysis
	1 Introduction
	2 First Cycle (1929–1952): From the Opening of Diplomatic Ties to World War II
		2.1 Rapprochement: Seeking New Economic Arenas
		2.2 The Rupturing of Iran–Japan Diplomatic Relations: The Impact of WWII
	3 Second Cycle (1953–1988): From Surge to Decline
		3.1 Golden Age of Iran–Japan Economic Relations
			3.1.1 Oil Transactions
			3.1.2 Iranian Development Policy and Japanese Economic Cooperation
		3.2 Iran’s Regime Change and the Japanese Struggle to Stay On
			3.2.1 Revolution and War: Japanese Private Companies Withdraw from Iran
			3.2.2 Iranian Political Factionalism: The Japanese Government’s Patience
			3.2.3 The Iran–Iraq War: Japanese Initiatives for a Ceasefire Pact
	4 Third Cycle (1989–2015): From Restart to Deadlock
		4.1 Rising Pragmatists in Iran: The Achievements of Japanese Patience
		4.2 Iran Nuclear Controversy and the Third Decline of Iran–Japan Relations
	5 Conclusion
	References
5 The Relations Between Japan and Turkey: Three-Dimensional Diplomacy—Roles of the Imperial Family, the Government, and Citizens
	1 Introduction: Turkey—The Image of a Pro-Japan Country and Reality
		1.1 Sources for the Paper
		1.2 Economic Relations: A Reflection on the Bilateral Relations
	2 The History—The Dawn of the Bilateral Relations
		2.1 The Dawn: The First Contact with the Ottoman Empire
		2.2 The Reopening of Diplomatic Relations After WWII
		2.3 1970s–1980s: Realization of the Exchanges in Politics, Economy, and Culture
	3 The Post-Cold War Period: The Strategic Partnership and the Strengthening of Citizen Exchanges
		3.1 The End of the Cold War: The Strengthening of Bilateral Relations with Turkey
		3.2 Turkey Begins Cooperating with Japan to Provide Foreign Aid: TIKA and JICA
		3.3 Cooperation on Disaster Prevention Management: Overcoming the Earthquakes
		3.4 The Twenty-First Century: The Era of the Strategical Partnership
	4 Cultural and Academic Exchange: ‘Diplomacy’ by the Imperial Families, Governments, and Citizens
		4.1 Ceremonies of Ertuğrul: Effects on the Bilateral Relations
		4.2 Three-Dimensional Diplomacy Between Japan and Turkey: The Japanese Institute of Anatolian Archaeology of the Middle Eastern Culture Center and Imperial ‘Diplomacy’
		4.3 The Exchange Between Citizens: Widening the Inter-Exchange in Academic, Education, Local Governments, and Friendship Associations
	5 Conclusion: Past, Present, and Future
	References
6 Japan–Egypt Bilateral Relations: A Main Pillar of Japanese Middle Eastern Policy
	1 Introduction: Neglected Bilateral Relations between Japan and Egypt
	2 Pre-WWII Japan–Egypt Relation: Encounter Between Japan and Egypt
	3 Economic Relation: Japan’s Essential Hub in the Middle East
	4 Diplomatic Relation: Strategic Importance
		4.1 Bilateral Relation in 1950s–1970s: Egypt as Bridgehead of Japanese Middle East Diplomacy
		4.2 Consolidation of Partnership After the End of the Cold War
	5 Official Development Assistance: One of the Most Important Tools for Reinforcing the Bilateral Relations
	6 Cultural Exchange: Foundation of Mutual Understanding
	7 Conclusion
	References
7 Beyond Power, Before Interdependence: Complex Synergy and Japan–Israel Relations
	1 Introduction to Japan–Israel Relations in the Post-War Period
		1.1 Japan’s Relations with Israel
		1.2 Israel’s Relations with Japan
	2 Royal, Government, and Citizen Diplomacy
	3 The Long Freeze and Slow Thaw
		3.1 Cool but Diplomatically Correct; 1952–Mid-1960s
			3.1.1 Security
			3.1.2 Economy
			3.1.3 Diplomacy
		3.2 Cold and at Times Openly Hostile: 1967–Late 1980s
			3.2.1 Security
			3.2.2 Economy
			3.2.3 Diplomacy
		3.3 Warm Yet Uncommitted: 1989–Early 2000s
			3.3.1 Security
			3.3.2 Economy
			3.3.3 Diplomacy
	4 The Diplomatic Turn
		4.1 Hot Rising Sun Relations: 2012–2019
			4.1.1 Security
			4.1.2 Economy
			4.1.3 Royal Diplomacy
			4.1.4 Government Diplomacy
			4.1.5 Citizen Diplomacy
	5 Complex Synergy and International Relations
	6 Conclusion
	References
8 Oil Market and Supply: From the Perspective of Japan's Energy Policy
	1 Introduction
	2 Macro Structure of the Energy Market in Japan
		2.1 Trends in Energy Supply and Demand in Japan
		2.2 A Comparison of Japan and Other Countries
		2.3 Trends in Japan's Energy Sources
		2.4 Comparison with Other Major Energy Consumers: Japan’s High Dependence on Fossil Energy
	3 The Structure of the Japanese Oil Market
		3.1 Japan’s Middle Eastern Oil Dependency
		3.2 Japan’s Dependence on Middle Eastern LNG
		3.3 Gulf Dependence on Japan’s Market
		3.4 Energy Interdependence and Its Fragility
	4 Japan's Energy Security via the “3E+S” Policy
		4.1 Energy Security: Japan's Pre-War Experiences
		4.2 Diversification as an Energy Security Option
		4.3 Stable Supply as Japan’s Energy Security: 1950s–1970s
		4.4 Awareness of Costs and the Environment: 1980s–1990s
		4.5 Formation of the 3E+S Policy
		4.6 Evaluations of Energy Security Performance
	5 Japan's Oil Industry Lacks International Competitiveness
		5.1 Two Weak Points
		5.2 The Roadmap for Japan's Oil Industry
	6 Concluding Remarks: Trends in the Japanese Economy and Oil Market
	References
9 The LNG Sector in Japan’s Relations with the Middle East
	1 The Evolution of Japan’s Energy Interests
	2 The Emergence of the LNG Sector in Japan
	3 The Oil 1973 Crisis: Impact on Japan’s Foreign Policy and the LNG Sector
	4 Growth and Expansion of Japan’s Trade in LNG with the Gulf Region
	5 Geopolitics and LNG: Key East Asian Market Dynamics
	6  Opportunities and Challenges
	7 Concluding Observations
	References
10 Investment and Trade Promotion Policies: Gulf and Japan’s Non-energy Sector Interdependence
	1 Introduction
	2 Impact of Trade and Foreign Direct Investment on Economic Development in Developing Countries
		2.1 Trade and Economic Development
		2.2 Trading Policies
		2.3 FDI and Economic Development
		2.4 Investment Promotion
	3 Institutional Framework of Trade and Investment Promotion in the GCC Countries
		3.1 Free Trade Agreements (or FTAs) for the GCC Countries
		3.2 Investment Promotion Policies
		3.3 Bilateral Investment Treaties
		3.4 Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs)
	4 GCC-Japan Economic Relations
		4.1 GCC Trade Partners
		4.2 Foreign Direct Investment
		4.3 Japanese Banks’ Claims on the GCC Countries
		4.4 Japanese Companies in the GCC Countries
		4.5 The GCC Companies in Japan
	5 Conclusion: Interdependence of the GCC Countries and Japan
	References
11 Origin of Japan’s Relations with Middle Eastern Countries by Practical Internationalism
	1 Lack of Strategy Versus Practical Internationalism
	2 “Reactive State” Controversy and Methodology for “The Middle East-Japan Relationship”
		2.1 Evaluations of Japan’s Diplomacy by Middle East Critics
		2.2 The Competition of Five Perspectives in Interpreting Japan’s Foreign Policy Direction
		2.3 The Controversy Over “Reactive State Theory”
		2.4 Methodology
	3 The Internationalists’ Perspective on Japan’s Middle East Policy
		3.1 Internationalism in Japan’s Diplomacy
		3.2 Emergence of Internationalists after 1970's
		3.3 Japan’s Middle East Policy by Internationalists
	4 Conception of Japan’s Internationalism
	References
12 Nonmilitary Contribution by Japan in the Gulf Crisis 1990–1991: Funding, Intelligence Gathering, Releasing Hostages, and Minesweeping
	1 The U.S. Domestic Response to the Gulf Crisis
	2 The Truth About Funding: Gulf Peace Fund (GPF)
	3 The U.S. Audit and the Evaluation of Japan’s Funding
	4 Gratitude of Saudi Arabia and Kuwait
		4.1 Saudi Arabia’s Appreciation and Diplomacy Towards Japan
		4.2 Kuwaiti Advertisement for Appreciation in Newspapers
	5 Relief of Hostages Through Peace Festival Held in Baghdad
	6 Intelligence Gathering to Confirm Iran’s Intention
	7 Minesweeping in the Gulf
	8 Conclusion
	References
13 Empirical and Conceptual Conclusions on Japan’s Interdependence with the Middle East
	1 Establishment of Complex Interdependence
	2 The Formation of Bilateral Interdependence
	3 Five Types of Japan–Middle East Interdependence
	4 Classifying Japan–Middle East Interdependence
	5 Uniqueness of Middle East–Japan Mulifaceted Complex Interdependence
	6 Non-energy Trade and Direct Investment
	7 Regime Security of the Middle East Countries
	8 Protection and Security of Japanese in the Middle East
	9 Cultural Understanding
	10 Multilateralism
	Bibliography
Glossary
Index