ISE Natural Disasters

Cover
Title
Copyright
About the Author
Brief Contents
Contents
Preface
Prologue: Energy Flows
	Processes of Construction versus Destruction
	Terms to Remember
CHAPTER 1 Natural Disasters and the Human Population
	Great Natural Disasters
	Human Fatalities and Economic Losses in Natural Disasters
		The Role of Government in Natural-Disaster Death Totals
		Human Responses to Disaster
		Economic Losses from Natural Disasters
	Natural Hazards
		Popocatépetl Volcano, Mexico
		Magnitude, Frequency, and Return Period
		Role of Population Growth
	Overview of Human Population
		The Power of an Exponent on Growth
		The Past 10,000 Years of Human History
		The Human Population Today
	Side Note: Interest Paid on Money: An Example of Exponential Growth
	Future World Population
		Demographic Transition
		Urbanization and Earthquake Fatalities
	Side Note: A Classic Disaster: Influenza (Flu) Pandemic of 1918
		Disease Pandemics
	Carrying Capacity
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
CHAPTER 2 Internal Energy and Plate Tectonics
	Origin of the Sun and Planets
		Impact Origin of the Moon
	Earth History
	The Layered Earth
	Side Note: Mother Earth
		Behavior of Materials
	Side Note: Volcanoes and the Origin of the Ocean, Atmosphere, and Life
		Isostasy
	Internal Sources of Energy
		Impact Energy and Gravitational Energy
		Radioactive Isotopes
	In Greater Depth: Radioactive Isotopes
	Age of Earth
	In Greater Depth: Radioactivity Disasters
	Plate Tectonics
		Development of the Plate Tectonics Concept
	In Greater Depth: Earth\'s Magnetic Field
		Magnetization of Volcanic Rocks
	The Grand Unifying Theory
	How We Understand Earth
		Uniformitarianism
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
CHAPTER 3 Earthquake Geology and Seismology
	A Classic Disaster: The Lisbon Earthquake of 1755
	Understanding Earthquakes
		Faults and Geologic Mapping
	Types of Faults
		Dip-Slip Faults
		Strike-Slip Faults
		Transform Faults
	Development of Seismology
		Waves
	Seismic Waves
		Body Waves
		Seismic Waves and Earth\'s Interior
		Surface Waves
		Sound Waves and Seismic Waves
	In Greater Depth: Seismic Waves from Nuclear Bomb Blasts Versus Earthquakes
	Locating the Source of an Earthquake
	Magnitude of Earthquakes
		Richter Scale
		Other Measures of Earthquake Size
		Foreshocks, Mainshock, and Aftershocks
		Magnitude, Fault-Rupture Length, and Seismic- Wave Frequencies
	Ground Motion During Earthquakes
	In Greater Depth: F = ma
		Acceleration
		Periods of Buildings and Responses of Foundations
	In Greater Depth: What to Do Before and During an Earthquake
	Earthquake Intensity—What We Feel During an Earthquake
		Mercalli Scale Variables
	A Case History of Mercalli Variables: The San Fernando Valley, California, Earthquake of 1971
		Learning from the Past
	Building in Earthquake Country
		Shear Walls and Bracing
		Retrofit Buildings, Bridges, and House Construction
		Base Isolation
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
	Disaster Simulation Game
CHAPTER 4 Plate Tectonics and Earthquakes
	Tectonic-Plate Edges and Earthquakes
	Spreading-Center Earthquakes
		Iceland
		Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
		Gulf of California
	Convergent Zones and Earthquakes
	Subduction-Zone Earthquakes
		Japan, 2011: Stuck Segments of Subducting Plate
	A Classic Disaster: The Tokyo Earthquake of 1923
		Indonesia, 2004: One Earthquake Triggers Others
		Mexico City, 1985: Long-Distance Destruction
		Chile, 1960: The Biggest One
		Alaska, 1964: Second Biggest One
		Pacific Northwest: The Upcoming Earthquake
	Continent-Continent Collision Earthquakes
		China, Pakistan, and India, 2008, 2005, and 2001: Continent Collision Kills
		China, 1556: The Deadliest Earthquake
	The Arabian Plate
		Continent-Continent Collision Earthquakes
		Transform-Fault Earthquakes
	Transform-Fault Earthquakes
		Haiti, 2010: Earthquakes Don\'t Kill, Buildings Do
		Turkey, 1999: Serial Earthquakes
		San Andreas Fault Tectonics and Earthquakes
	A Classic Disaster: The San Francisco Earthquake of 1906
		Bay Area Earthquakes—Past and Future
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
CHAPTER 5 Earthquakes Throughout the United States and Canada
	How Faults Work
		Elastic Rebound
		Newer View
	Thrust-Fault Earthquakes
		Virginia, 2011: Ancient Faults Can Reactivate
		Northridge, California, 1994: Compression at the Big Bend
		Seattle, Washington
	Normal-Fault Earthquakes
		Puget Sound, Washington, 1949, 1965, 2001: Subducting Plates Can Crack
	Neotectonics and Paleoseismology
	Earthquake Prediction
		Long-Term Forecasts
		Short-Term Forecasts
		Early Warning Systems
	Human-Triggered Earthquakes
		Pumping Fluids Underground
	Side Note: Perils of Prediction: Scientists on Trial
		Dam Earthquakes
		Bomb Blasts
	Earthquake-Shaking Maps
		Did You Feel It?
		ShakeMaps
	California Earthquake Scenario
		Annualized Earthquake Losses
		Great Shakeout Events
	Earthquakes in the United States and Canada
	Western North America: Plate Boundary–Zone Earthquakes
		Western Great Basin: Eastern California, Western Nevada
		The Intermountain Seismic Belt: Utah, Idaho, Wyoming, Montana
		Rio Grande Rift: New Mexico, Colorado, Westernmost Texas, Mexico
	Intraplate Earthquakes: \"Stable\" Central United States
		New Madrid, Missouri, 1811–1812
		Reelfoot Rift: Missouri, Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky, Illinois
		Ancient Rifts in the Central United States
	Intraplate Earthquakes: Eastern North America
		New England
		St. Lawrence River Valley
		Charleston, South Carolina, 1886
	Earthquakes and Volcanism in Hawaii
		Earthquake in 1975
		Earthquakes in 2006
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
CHAPTER 6 Volcanic Eruptions: Plate Tectonics and Magmas
	How We Understand Volcanic Eruptions
	Plate-Tectonic Setting of Volcanoes
	A Classic Disaster: Eruption of Mount Vesuvius, 79 ce
	Chemical Composition of Magmas
	Viscosity, Temperature, and Water Content of Magmas
	In Greater Depth: Minerals and Volcanic Rocks
		Plate-Tectonic Setting of Volcanoes Revisited
	How A Volcano Erupts
		Eruption Styles and the Role of Water Content
		Some Volcanic Materials
	Side Note: How a Geyser Erupts
	The Three Vs of Volcanology: Viscosity, Volatiles, Volume
		Shield Volcanoes: Low Viscosity, Low Volatiles, Large Volume
	In Greater Depth: Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI)
		Flood Basalts: Low Viscosity, Low Volatiles, Very Large Volume
		Scoria Cones: Medium Viscosity, Medium Volatiles, Small Volume
		Stratovolcanoes: High Viscosity, High Volatiles, Large Volume
		Lava Domes: High Viscosity, Low Volatiles, Small Volume
	Side Note: British Airways Flight 9
		Calderas: High Viscosity, High Volatiles, Very Large Volume
	In Greater Depth: Hot Spots
	A Classic Disaster: Santorini and the Lost Island of Atlantis
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
CHAPTER 7 Volcano Case Histories: Killer Events
	Volcanism at Spreading Centers
		Iceland
	Volcanism at Subduction Zones
		Cascade Range, Pacific Coast of United States and Canada
	In Greater Depth: Rapid Assembly and Rise of Magma
	Volcanic Processess and Killer Events
		The Historic Record of Volcano Fatalities
		Pyroclastic Eruptions
	A Classic Disaster: Mont Pelée, Martinique, 1902
		Tsunami
		Lahars
	Side Note: Death at Ashfall, Nebraska
		Debris Avalanches
		Indirect—Famine
		Gas
		Lava Flows
	VEIs of Some Killer Eruptions
	Volcano Monitoring and Warning
		Long Valley, California, 1982
		Mount Pinatubo, Philippines, 1991
		Signs of Impending Eruption
		Volcano Observatories
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
CHAPTER 8 Tsunami Versus Wind-Caused Waves
	Japanese Tsunami, 11 March 2011
		Tsunami Travel Through the Pacific Ocean
		Land Subsidence
	Side Note: Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster
	British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, 26 January 1700
		Waves in Water
	Wind-Caused Waves
		Why a Wind-Blown Wave Breaks
		Rogue Waves
	In Greater Depth: Deep-Water Wave Velocity, Length, Period, and Energy
	Tsunami
	Tsunami versus Wind-Caused Waves
	A Classic Disaster: The Chile Tsunami of 1868
		Tsunami at the Shoreline
	Earthquake-Caused Tsunami
		Indian Ocean 26 December 2004
		Alaska, 1 April 1946: First Wave Biggest
		Chile, 22 May 1960: Third Wave Biggest
		Alaska, 27 March 1964: Fifth Wave Biggest
	Volcano-Caused Tsunami
		Krakatau, Indonesia, 26–27 August 1883
	Landslide-Caused Tsunami
		Volcano Collapses
		Earthquake-Triggered Mass Movements
		In Bays and Lakes
	Seiches
		Hebgen Lake, Montana, 17 August 1959
	Tsunami and You
		Simeulue Island, Indonesia, 26 December 2004
		Nicaragua, 1 September 1992
		Humans Can Increase the Hazard
		Tsunami Warnings
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
	Disaster Simulation Game
CHAPTER 9 External Energy Fuels Weather and Climate
	External Sources of Energy
		The Sun
	Solar Radiation Received by Earth
	Outgoing Terrestrial Radiation
		Greenhouse Effect
		Albedo
		Convection and Conduction
	The Hydrologic Cycle
	In Greater Depth: Water—The Most Peculiar Substance on Earth?
	Water and Heat
		Water Vapor and Humidity
		Latent Heat
		Adiabatic Processes
		Lapse Rates
		Differential Heating of Land and Water
	Energy Transfer in the Atmosphere
	Energy Transfer in the World Ocean
	Layering of the Lower Atmosphere
		Temperature
		Pressure
	Winds
		Pressure Gradient Force
	In Greater Depth: Coriolis Effect
		Rotating Air Bodies
	General Circulation of the Atmosphere
		Low Latitudes
		High Latitudes
		Middle Latitudes
		Observed Circulation of the Atmosphere
	General Circulation of the Oceans
		Surface Circulation
		Deep-Ocean Circulation
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
CHAPTER 10 Tornadoes, Lightning, Heat, and Cold
	Severe Weather
	Winter Storms
		Cold
		Precipitation
		Nor\'easters
	In Greater Depth: Doppler Radar
		Blizzards
		Ice Storms
		Lake-Effect Snow
	How Thunderstorms Work
		Lifting of Air
	Air-Mass Thunderstorms
	Severe Thunderstorms
		Supercells
		Thunderstorms in North America
	In Greater Depth: Downbursts: An Airplane\'s Enemy
		Heavy Rains and Flash Floods
		Hail
		Derechos
	Tornadoes
		Tornadoes in 2011
	How Tornadoes Form
		Regional Scale
		Supercell Thunderstorm Scale
		Vortex Scale
		Tornadoes in the United States and Canada
	A Classic Disaster: The Tri-State Tornado of 1925
	Tornado Outbreaks
		Tornadoes and Cities
		How a Tornado Destroys a House
	Tornado Safety
		Safe Rooms
	Lightning
		How Lightning Works
		Don\'t Get Struck
	Heat
		Heat Wave in Chicago, July 1995
		City Weather
		European Heat Waves, 2003 and 2010
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
CHAPTER 11 Hurricanes
	Hurricanes
	How a Hurricane Forms
	How a Hurricane Works
		Eyewall and Eye
		Tornadoes Within Hurricanes
		Eyewall Replacement Cycle
		Energy Flow in a Hurricane
		Hurricane Energy Release
		Hurricane Transition to Post-Tropical Cyclone
	Hurricane Origins
	North Atlantic Ocean Hurricanes
		Cape Verde–Type Hurricanes
		Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico–Type Hurricanes
	Hurricane Forecasts
		How Hurricanes Get Their Names
		Hurricane Trends in the Atlantic Basin
	Hurricane Damages
		Storm-Surge Hazards
		Inland Flooding
	A Classic Disaster: The Galveston Hurricane of 1900
	Hurricanes and the Gulf of Mexico Coastline
		Hurricane Katrina, August 2005
	Hurricanes and the Atlantic Coastline
		Hurricane Hugo, September 1989
	The Evacuation Dilemma
	Reduction of Hurricane Damages
	In Greater Depth: How to Build a Home Near the Coastline
		Land-Use Planning
	Global Rise in Sea Level
	Hurricanes and the Pacific Coastline
		Hurricane Iniki, September 1992
	Cyclones and Bangladesh
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
	Disaster Simulation Game
CHAPTER 12 Climate Change
	Early Earth Climate—An Intense Greenhouse
	Climate History of Earth: Timescale in Millions of Years
	In Greater Depth: Equilibrium Between Tectonics, Rock Weathering, and Climate
		Late Paleozoic Ice Age
		Late Paleocene Torrid Age
		Late Cenozoic Ice Age
	In Greater Depth: Oxygen Isotopes and Temperature
	Glacial Advance and Retreat: Timescale in Thousands of Years
		The Last Glacial Maximum
	Climate Variations: Timescale in Hundreds of Years
	Shorter-Term Climate Changes: Timescale in Multiple Years
		El Niño
		La Niña
		Pacific Decadal Oscillation
		Volcanism and Climate
		Volcanic Climate Effects
	In Greater Depth: The Mayan Civilization and Climate Change
	The Past Thousand Years
	The 20th Century
	Solar Energy Variation
	Side Note: Stradivari Violins
		Radiative Forcing
	In Greater Depth: When Did Humans Begin Adding to Greenhouse Warming?
	Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols
		Water Vapor
		Carbon Dioxide (CO[sub(2)])
		Methane (CH[sub(4)])
		Nitrous Oxide (N[sub(2)]O)
		Ozone (O[sub(3)])
		Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
		20th-Century Greenhouse Gas Increases
		Aerosols
	The 21st Century
		Global Climate Models
		Drought and Famine
		Ice Melting
	In Greater Depth: Tipping Points
		Sea-Level Rise
	In Greater Depth: Lag Times
		Ocean Changes
		Signs of Change
	Mitigation Options
		Controlling Co[sub(2)] Content of Atmosphere
		Managing Incoming Solar Radiation
		Fast-Action Strategies
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
CHAPTER 13 Floods
	How Rivers and Streams Work
	Side Note: A Different Kind of Killer Flood
		The Equilibrium Stream
	In Greater Depth: Stream Velocity Profile
		Graded-Stream Theory
	Side Note: Feedback Mechanisms
		The Floodplain
	Flood Frequency
		Florence, Italy, 1333 and 1966
		Flood-Frequency Curves
	In Greater Depth: Constructing Flood-Frequency Curves
	Flood Styles
		Flash Floods vs. Regional Floods
		Flash Floods
		Regional Floods
	Societal Responses to Flood Hazards
		Dams, Reservoirs, and Natural Storage Areas
		Levees
		Sandbagging
		Forecasting
		Zoning and Land Use
		Insurance
		Presidential Disaster Declarations
	Urbanization and Floods
		Hydrographs
		Flood Frequencies
		Channelization
	The Biggest Floods
		Ice-Dam Failure Floods
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questionsfor Review
	Questions for Further Thought
	Disaster Simulation Game
CHAPTER 14 Wildfire
	Fire
	In Greater Depth: Fire and Life
	What Is Fire?
	The Fire Triangle
	A Classic Disaster: The Burning of Rome, 64 ce
	The Fuels of Fire
		Grasses
		Shrubs
		Forests
		Houses
	The Causes of Wildfires
	The Stages of Fire
	The Spread of Fire
		Fuel
		Topography
		Fire Behavior
		Wind
	Fire Weather and Winds
		Local Winds
		Downslope Winds
		Wind and Fire in California
	A Classic Disaster: Wind and Fire in the Great Lakes Region, 1871
		Smoke Effects on Human Health
	Home Design and Fire
	Side Note: The Winds of Madness
		How Well Have We Learned?
	Fire Suppression
		Yellowstone National Park Wildfire
		California Versus Baja California: Pay Now or Pay Later
		The Western and Southern United States in 2000
		Prescribed Fires
		Wildfires in Australia
	The Similarities of Fire and Flood
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
	Disaster Simulation Game
CHAPTER 15 Mass Movements
	The Role of Gravity in Mass Movements
		Creep
	External Causes of Slope Failures
	In Greater Depth: Energy, Force, Work, Power, and Heat
		Water in Its External Roles
	Internal Causes of Slope Failures
		Inherently Weak Materials
		Water in Its Internal Roles
	In Greater Depth: Analysis of Slope Stability
		Decreases in Cohesion
	A Classic Disaster: Vaiont Landslide, Italy, 1963
		Adverse Geologic Structures
		Triggers of Mass Movements
	Classification of Mass Movements
	Falls
		Yosemite National Park, California
	Slides
		Rotational Slides
		Translational Slides
	Flows
		Portuguese Bend, California, Earthflow
		La Conchita, California, Slump and Debris Flows, 1995 and 2005
		Long-Runout Debris Flows
	Snow Avalanches
	Submarine Mass Movements
	Mitigation
		Reshaping Topography
		Strengthening Slopes
		Draining Water
		Controlling Erosion
	Subsidence
		Catastrophic Subsidence
		Slow Subsidence
	In Greater Depth: How to Create a Cave
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
CHAPTER 16 Coastal Processes and Hazards
	Sand
		Summer Versus Winter Beaches
	Waves
		Rip Currents
	Side Note: Shark-Attack Deaths
		Wave Refraction
		Longshore Drift
	In Greater Depth: Gravity and Tides
	Tides
		Tidal Bores
	Coastal-Control Structures
		Seawalls
		Cliff Armoring
		Groins and Jetties
		Breakwaters
		Massive Structures in Future
		Mother Nature at Work
	Side Note: You Can Never Do Just One Thing
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
CHAPTER 17 Impacts with Space Objects
	Energy and Impacts
	Impact Scars
	Sources of Extraterrestrial Debris
		Asteroids
	Side Note: Dwarf Planets
		Comets
	In Greater Depth: Insights from Spacecraft Landing on a Comet
	Rates of Meteoroid Influx
		Cosmic Dust
		Shooting Stars
	In Greater Depth: Shoemaker-Levy 9 Comet Impacts on Jupiter
		Meteorites
	The Crater-Forming Process
	Crater-Forming Impacts
		Meteor Crater, Arizona
	Impact Origin of Chesapeake Bay
	The End Cretaceous Impact
		Evidence of the End Cretaceous Impact
		Site of the End Cretaceous Impact
		Size and Velocity of Impactor
		Angle of Impact
		Problems for Life from the End Cretaceous Impact
	Biggest Impact Events of the 20th and 21st Centuries
		Tunguska, Siberia, 1908
		Big \"Near Events\"
	Frequency of Large Impacts
	In Greater Depth: Coronal Mass Ejections
		Lifetime Risks of Impact
		Prevention of Impacts
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
CHAPTER 18 The Great Dyings
	Fossils
	Early Understanding of Extinctions and Geologic Time
		Brief History of Life
	Species and the Fossil Record
		The Tropical Reef Example
	Mass Extinctions During Phanerozoic Time
	Possible Causes of Mass Extinctions
		Plate-Tectonic Causes
		Volcanic Causes
		Climate Change Causes
		Ocean Composition Causes
		Extraterrestrial Causes
		Biologic Causes
		Multiple Causes of Mass Extinction
	Examples of Mass Extinctions
		Close of Permian Period (Ended 252 Million Years Ago)
		Close of Cretaceous Period (Ended 66 Million Years Ago)
	Living Fossils
		The Current Mass Extinction
	In Greater Depth: La Brea Tar Pits, Metropolitan Los Angeles
	Side Note: The Rewilding of North America
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
Appendix: Geologic Time Table and Table of Conversions
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Index
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Cover
Title
Copyright
About the Author
Brief Contents
Contents
Preface
Prologue: Energy Flows
	Processes of Construction versus Destruction
	Terms to Remember
CHAPTER 1 Natural Disasters and the Human Population
	Great Natural Disasters
	Human Fatalities and Economic Losses in Natural Disasters
		The Role of Government in Natural-Disaster Death Totals
		Human Responses to Disaster
		Economic Losses from Natural Disasters
	Natural Hazards
		Popocatépetl Volcano, Mexico
		Magnitude, Frequency, and Return Period
		Role of Population Growth
	Overview of Human Population
		The Power of an Exponent on Growth
		The Past 10,000 Years of Human History
		The Human Population Today
	Side Note: Interest Paid on Money: An Example of Exponential Growth
	Future World Population
		Demographic Transition
		Urbanization and Earthquake Fatalities
	Side Note: A Classic Disaster: Influenza (Flu) Pandemic of 1918
		Disease Pandemics
	Carrying Capacity
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
CHAPTER 2 Internal Energy and Plate Tectonics
	Origin of the Sun and Planets
		Impact Origin of the Moon
	Earth History
	The Layered Earth
	Side Note: Mother Earth
		Behavior of Materials
	Side Note: Volcanoes and the Origin of the Ocean, Atmosphere, and Life
		Isostasy
	Internal Sources of Energy
		Impact Energy and Gravitational Energy
		Radioactive Isotopes
	In Greater Depth: Radioactive Isotopes
	Age of Earth
	In Greater Depth: Radioactivity Disasters
	Plate Tectonics
		Development of the Plate Tectonics Concept
	In Greater Depth: Earth\'s Magnetic Field
		Magnetization of Volcanic Rocks
	The Grand Unifying Theory
	How We Understand Earth
		Uniformitarianism
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
CHAPTER 3 Earthquake Geology and Seismology
	A Classic Disaster: The Lisbon Earthquake of 1755
	Understanding Earthquakes
		Faults and Geologic Mapping
	Types of Faults
		Dip-Slip Faults
		Strike-Slip Faults
		Transform Faults
	Development of Seismology
		Waves
	Seismic Waves
		Body Waves
		Seismic Waves and Earth\'s Interior
		Surface Waves
		Sound Waves and Seismic Waves
	In Greater Depth: Seismic Waves from Nuclear Bomb Blasts Versus Earthquakes
	Locating the Source of an Earthquake
	Magnitude of Earthquakes
		Richter Scale
		Other Measures of Earthquake Size
		Foreshocks, Mainshock, and Aftershocks
		Magnitude, Fault-Rupture Length, and Seismic- Wave Frequencies
	Ground Motion During Earthquakes
	In Greater Depth: F = ma
		Acceleration
		Periods of Buildings and Responses of Foundations
	In Greater Depth: What to Do Before and During an Earthquake
	Earthquake Intensity—What We Feel During an Earthquake
		Mercalli Scale Variables
	A Case History of Mercalli Variables: The San Fernando Valley, California, Earthquake of 1971
		Learning from the Past
	Building in Earthquake Country
		Shear Walls and Bracing
		Retrofit Buildings, Bridges, and House Construction
		Base Isolation
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
	Disaster Simulation Game
CHAPTER 4 Plate Tectonics and Earthquakes
	Tectonic-Plate Edges and Earthquakes
	Spreading-Center Earthquakes
		Iceland
		Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
		Gulf of California
	Convergent Zones and Earthquakes
	Subduction-Zone Earthquakes
		Japan, 2011: Stuck Segments of Subducting Plate
	A Classic Disaster: The Tokyo Earthquake of 1923
		Indonesia, 2004: One Earthquake Triggers Others
		Mexico City, 1985: Long-Distance Destruction
		Chile, 1960: The Biggest One
		Alaska, 1964: Second Biggest One
		Pacific Northwest: The Upcoming Earthquake
	Continent-Continent Collision Earthquakes
		China, Pakistan, and India, 2008, 2005, and 2001: Continent Collision Kills
		China, 1556: The Deadliest Earthquake
	The Arabian Plate
		Continent-Continent Collision Earthquakes
		Transform-Fault Earthquakes
	Transform-Fault Earthquakes
		Haiti, 2010: Earthquakes Don\'t Kill, Buildings Do
		Turkey, 1999: Serial Earthquakes
		San Andreas Fault Tectonics and Earthquakes
	A Classic Disaster: The San Francisco Earthquake of 1906
		Bay Area Earthquakes—Past and Future
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
CHAPTER 5 Earthquakes Throughout the United States and Canada
	How Faults Work
		Elastic Rebound
		Newer View
	Thrust-Fault Earthquakes
		Virginia, 2011: Ancient Faults Can Reactivate
		Northridge, California, 1994: Compression at the Big Bend
		Seattle, Washington
	Normal-Fault Earthquakes
		Puget Sound, Washington, 1949, 1965, 2001: Subducting Plates Can Crack
	Neotectonics and Paleoseismology
	Earthquake Prediction
		Long-Term Forecasts
		Short-Term Forecasts
		Early Warning Systems
	Human-Triggered Earthquakes
		Pumping Fluids Underground
	Side Note: Perils of Prediction: Scientists on Trial
		Dam Earthquakes
		Bomb Blasts
	Earthquake-Shaking Maps
		Did You Feel It?
		ShakeMaps
	California Earthquake Scenario
		Annualized Earthquake Losses
		Great Shakeout Events
	Earthquakes in the United States and Canada
	Western North America: Plate Boundary–Zone Earthquakes
		Western Great Basin: Eastern California, Western Nevada
		The Intermountain Seismic Belt: Utah, Idaho, Wyoming, Montana
		Rio Grande Rift: New Mexico, Colorado, Westernmost Texas, Mexico
	Intraplate Earthquakes: \"Stable\" Central United States
		New Madrid, Missouri, 1811–1812
		Reelfoot Rift: Missouri, Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky, Illinois
		Ancient Rifts in the Central United States
	Intraplate Earthquakes: Eastern North America
		New England
		St. Lawrence River Valley
		Charleston, South Carolina, 1886
	Earthquakes and Volcanism in Hawaii
		Earthquake in 1975
		Earthquakes in 2006
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
CHAPTER 6 Volcanic Eruptions: Plate Tectonics and Magmas
	How We Understand Volcanic Eruptions
	Plate-Tectonic Setting of Volcanoes
	A Classic Disaster: Eruption of Mount Vesuvius, 79 ce
	Chemical Composition of Magmas
	Viscosity, Temperature, and Water Content of Magmas
	In Greater Depth: Minerals and Volcanic Rocks
		Plate-Tectonic Setting of Volcanoes Revisited
	How A Volcano Erupts
		Eruption Styles and the Role of Water Content
		Some Volcanic Materials
	Side Note: How a Geyser Erupts
	The Three Vs of Volcanology: Viscosity, Volatiles, Volume
		Shield Volcanoes: Low Viscosity, Low Volatiles, Large Volume
	In Greater Depth: Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI)
		Flood Basalts: Low Viscosity, Low Volatiles, Very Large Volume
		Scoria Cones: Medium Viscosity, Medium Volatiles, Small Volume
		Stratovolcanoes: High Viscosity, High Volatiles, Large Volume
		Lava Domes: High Viscosity, Low Volatiles, Small Volume
	Side Note: British Airways Flight 9
		Calderas: High Viscosity, High Volatiles, Very Large Volume
	In Greater Depth: Hot Spots
	A Classic Disaster: Santorini and the Lost Island of Atlantis
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
CHAPTER 7 Volcano Case Histories: Killer Events
	Volcanism at Spreading Centers
		Iceland
	Volcanism at Subduction Zones
		Cascade Range, Pacific Coast of United States and Canada
	In Greater Depth: Rapid Assembly and Rise of Magma
	Volcanic Processess and Killer Events
		The Historic Record of Volcano Fatalities
		Pyroclastic Eruptions
	A Classic Disaster: Mont Pelée, Martinique, 1902
		Tsunami
		Lahars
	Side Note: Death at Ashfall, Nebraska
		Debris Avalanches
		Indirect—Famine
		Gas
		Lava Flows
	VEIs of Some Killer Eruptions
	Volcano Monitoring and Warning
		Long Valley, California, 1982
		Mount Pinatubo, Philippines, 1991
		Signs of Impending Eruption
		Volcano Observatories
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
CHAPTER 8 Tsunami Versus Wind-Caused Waves
	Japanese Tsunami, 11 March 2011
		Tsunami Travel Through the Pacific Ocean
		Land Subsidence
	Side Note: Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster
	British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, 26 January 1700
		Waves in Water
	Wind-Caused Waves
		Why a Wind-Blown Wave Breaks
		Rogue Waves
	In Greater Depth: Deep-Water Wave Velocity, Length, Period, and Energy
	Tsunami
	Tsunami versus Wind-Caused Waves
	A Classic Disaster: The Chile Tsunami of 1868
		Tsunami at the Shoreline
	Earthquake-Caused Tsunami
		Indian Ocean 26 December 2004
		Alaska, 1 April 1946: First Wave Biggest
		Chile, 22 May 1960: Third Wave Biggest
		Alaska, 27 March 1964: Fifth Wave Biggest
	Volcano-Caused Tsunami
		Krakatau, Indonesia, 26–27 August 1883
	Landslide-Caused Tsunami
		Volcano Collapses
		Earthquake-Triggered Mass Movements
		In Bays and Lakes
	Seiches
		Hebgen Lake, Montana, 17 August 1959
	Tsunami and You
		Simeulue Island, Indonesia, 26 December 2004
		Nicaragua, 1 September 1992
		Humans Can Increase the Hazard
		Tsunami Warnings
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
	Disaster Simulation Game
CHAPTER 9 External Energy Fuels Weather and Climate
	External Sources of Energy
		The Sun
	Solar Radiation Received by Earth
	Outgoing Terrestrial Radiation
		Greenhouse Effect
		Albedo
		Convection and Conduction
	The Hydrologic Cycle
	In Greater Depth: Water—The Most Peculiar Substance on Earth?
	Water and Heat
		Water Vapor and Humidity
		Latent Heat
		Adiabatic Processes
		Lapse Rates
		Differential Heating of Land and Water
	Energy Transfer in the Atmosphere
	Energy Transfer in the World Ocean
	Layering of the Lower Atmosphere
		Temperature
		Pressure
	Winds
		Pressure Gradient Force
	In Greater Depth: Coriolis Effect
		Rotating Air Bodies
	General Circulation of the Atmosphere
		Low Latitudes
		High Latitudes
		Middle Latitudes
		Observed Circulation of the Atmosphere
	General Circulation of the Oceans
		Surface Circulation
		Deep-Ocean Circulation
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
CHAPTER 10 Tornadoes, Lightning, Heat, and Cold
	Severe Weather
	Winter Storms
		Cold
		Precipitation
		Nor\'easters
	In Greater Depth: Doppler Radar
		Blizzards
		Ice Storms
		Lake-Effect Snow
	How Thunderstorms Work
		Lifting of Air
	Air-Mass Thunderstorms
	Severe Thunderstorms
		Supercells
		Thunderstorms in North America
	In Greater Depth: Downbursts: An Airplane\'s Enemy
		Heavy Rains and Flash Floods
		Hail
		Derechos
	Tornadoes
		Tornadoes in 2011
	How Tornadoes Form
		Regional Scale
		Supercell Thunderstorm Scale
		Vortex Scale
		Tornadoes in the United States and Canada
	A Classic Disaster: The Tri-State Tornado of 1925
	Tornado Outbreaks
		Tornadoes and Cities
		How a Tornado Destroys a House
	Tornado Safety
		Safe Rooms
	Lightning
		How Lightning Works
		Don\'t Get Struck
	Heat
		Heat Wave in Chicago, July 1995
		City Weather
		European Heat Waves, 2003 and 2010
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
CHAPTER 11 Hurricanes
	Hurricanes
	How a Hurricane Forms
	How a Hurricane Works
		Eyewall and Eye
		Tornadoes Within Hurricanes
		Eyewall Replacement Cycle
		Energy Flow in a Hurricane
		Hurricane Energy Release
		Hurricane Transition to Post-Tropical Cyclone
	Hurricane Origins
	North Atlantic Ocean Hurricanes
		Cape Verde–Type Hurricanes
		Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico–Type Hurricanes
	Hurricane Forecasts
		How Hurricanes Get Their Names
		Hurricane Trends in the Atlantic Basin
	Hurricane Damages
		Storm-Surge Hazards
		Inland Flooding
	A Classic Disaster: The Galveston Hurricane of 1900
	Hurricanes and the Gulf of Mexico Coastline
		Hurricane Katrina, August 2005
	Hurricanes and the Atlantic Coastline
		Hurricane Hugo, September 1989
	The Evacuation Dilemma
	Reduction of Hurricane Damages
	In Greater Depth: How to Build a Home Near the Coastline
		Land-Use Planning
	Global Rise in Sea Level
	Hurricanes and the Pacific Coastline
		Hurricane Iniki, September 1992
	Cyclones and Bangladesh
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
	Disaster Simulation Game
CHAPTER 12 Climate Change
	Early Earth Climate—An Intense Greenhouse
	Climate History of Earth: Timescale in Millions of Years
	In Greater Depth: Equilibrium Between Tectonics, Rock Weathering, and Climate
		Late Paleozoic Ice Age
		Late Paleocene Torrid Age
		Late Cenozoic Ice Age
	In Greater Depth: Oxygen Isotopes and Temperature
	Glacial Advance and Retreat: Timescale in Thousands of Years
		The Last Glacial Maximum
	Climate Variations: Timescale in Hundreds of Years
	Shorter-Term Climate Changes: Timescale in Multiple Years
		El Niño
		La Niña
		Pacific Decadal Oscillation
		Volcanism and Climate
		Volcanic Climate Effects
	In Greater Depth: The Mayan Civilization and Climate Change
	The Past Thousand Years
	The 20th Century
	Solar Energy Variation
	Side Note: Stradivari Violins
		Radiative Forcing
	In Greater Depth: When Did Humans Begin Adding to Greenhouse Warming?
	Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols
		Water Vapor
		Carbon Dioxide (CO[sub(2)])
		Methane (CH[sub(4)])
		Nitrous Oxide (N[sub(2)]O)
		Ozone (O[sub(3)])
		Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
		20th-Century Greenhouse Gas Increases
		Aerosols
	The 21st Century
		Global Climate Models
		Drought and Famine
		Ice Melting
	In Greater Depth: Tipping Points
		Sea-Level Rise
	In Greater Depth: Lag Times
		Ocean Changes
		Signs of Change
	Mitigation Options
		Controlling Co[sub(2)] Content of Atmosphere
		Managing Incoming Solar Radiation
		Fast-Action Strategies
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
CHAPTER 13 Floods
	How Rivers and Streams Work
	Side Note: A Different Kind of Killer Flood
		The Equilibrium Stream
	In Greater Depth: Stream Velocity Profile
		Graded-Stream Theory
	Side Note: Feedback Mechanisms
		The Floodplain
	Flood Frequency
		Florence, Italy, 1333 and 1966
		Flood-Frequency Curves
	In Greater Depth: Constructing Flood-Frequency Curves
	Flood Styles
		Flash Floods vs. Regional Floods
		Flash Floods
		Regional Floods
	Societal Responses to Flood Hazards
		Dams, Reservoirs, and Natural Storage Areas
		Levees
		Sandbagging
		Forecasting
		Zoning and Land Use
		Insurance
		Presidential Disaster Declarations
	Urbanization and Floods
		Hydrographs
		Flood Frequencies
		Channelization
	The Biggest Floods
		Ice-Dam Failure Floods
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questionsfor Review
	Questions for Further Thought
	Disaster Simulation Game
CHAPTER 14 Wildfire
	Fire
	In Greater Depth: Fire and Life
	What Is Fire?
	The Fire Triangle
	A Classic Disaster: The Burning of Rome, 64 ce
	The Fuels of Fire
		Grasses
		Shrubs
		Forests
		Houses
	The Causes of Wildfires
	The Stages of Fire
	The Spread of Fire
		Fuel
		Topography
		Fire Behavior
		Wind
	Fire Weather and Winds
		Local Winds
		Downslope Winds
		Wind and Fire in California
	A Classic Disaster: Wind and Fire in the Great Lakes Region, 1871
		Smoke Effects on Human Health
	Home Design and Fire
	Side Note: The Winds of Madness
		How Well Have We Learned?
	Fire Suppression
		Yellowstone National Park Wildfire
		California Versus Baja California: Pay Now or Pay Later
		The Western and Southern United States in 2000
		Prescribed Fires
		Wildfires in Australia
	The Similarities of Fire and Flood
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
	Disaster Simulation Game
CHAPTER 15 Mass Movements
	The Role of Gravity in Mass Movements
		Creep
	External Causes of Slope Failures
	In Greater Depth: Energy, Force, Work, Power, and Heat
		Water in Its External Roles
	Internal Causes of Slope Failures
		Inherently Weak Materials
		Water in Its Internal Roles
	In Greater Depth: Analysis of Slope Stability
		Decreases in Cohesion
	A Classic Disaster: Vaiont Landslide, Italy, 1963
		Adverse Geologic Structures
		Triggers of Mass Movements
	Classification of Mass Movements
	Falls
		Yosemite National Park, California
	Slides
		Rotational Slides
		Translational Slides
	Flows
		Portuguese Bend, California, Earthflow
		La Conchita, California, Slump and Debris Flows, 1995 and 2005
		Long-Runout Debris Flows
	Snow Avalanches
	Submarine Mass Movements
	Mitigation
		Reshaping Topography
		Strengthening Slopes
		Draining Water
		Controlling Erosion
	Subsidence
		Catastrophic Subsidence
		Slow Subsidence
	In Greater Depth: How to Create a Cave
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
CHAPTER 16 Coastal Processes and Hazards
	Sand
		Summer Versus Winter Beaches
	Waves
		Rip Currents
	Side Note: Shark-Attack Deaths
		Wave Refraction
		Longshore Drift
	In Greater Depth: Gravity and Tides
	Tides
		Tidal Bores
	Coastal-Control Structures
		Seawalls
		Cliff Armoring
		Groins and Jetties
		Breakwaters
		Massive Structures in Future
		Mother Nature at Work
	Side Note: You Can Never Do Just One Thing
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
CHAPTER 17 Impacts with Space Objects
	Energy and Impacts
	Impact Scars
	Sources of Extraterrestrial Debris
		Asteroids
	Side Note: Dwarf Planets
		Comets
	In Greater Depth: Insights from Spacecraft Landing on a Comet
	Rates of Meteoroid Influx
		Cosmic Dust
		Shooting Stars
	In Greater Depth: Shoemaker-Levy 9 Comet Impacts on Jupiter
		Meteorites
	The Crater-Forming Process
	Crater-Forming Impacts
		Meteor Crater, Arizona
	Impact Origin of Chesapeake Bay
	The End Cretaceous Impact
		Evidence of the End Cretaceous Impact
		Site of the End Cretaceous Impact
		Size and Velocity of Impactor
		Angle of Impact
		Problems for Life from the End Cretaceous Impact
	Biggest Impact Events of the 20th and 21st Centuries
		Tunguska, Siberia, 1908
		Big \"Near Events\"
	Frequency of Large Impacts
	In Greater Depth: Coronal Mass Ejections
		Lifetime Risks of Impact
		Prevention of Impacts
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
CHAPTER 18 The Great Dyings
	Fossils
	Early Understanding of Extinctions and Geologic Time
		Brief History of Life
	Species and the Fossil Record
		The Tropical Reef Example
	Mass Extinctions During Phanerozoic Time
	Possible Causes of Mass Extinctions
		Plate-Tectonic Causes
		Volcanic Causes
		Climate Change Causes
		Ocean Composition Causes
		Extraterrestrial Causes
		Biologic Causes
		Multiple Causes of Mass Extinction
	Examples of Mass Extinctions
		Close of Permian Period (Ended 252 Million Years Ago)
		Close of Cretaceous Period (Ended 66 Million Years Ago)
	Living Fossils
		The Current Mass Extinction
	In Greater Depth: La Brea Tar Pits, Metropolitan Los Angeles
	Side Note: The Rewilding of North America
	Summary
	Terms to Remember
	Questions for Review
	Questions for Further Thought
Appendix: Geologic Time Table and Table of Conversions
Glossary
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Index
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