Investigating seafloors and oceans. From mud volcanoes to giant squid

Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
The Chaotic and Vibrant Seafloor
	Introduction
		Exposed Oceanic Mantle
		Reversal of Earths Magnetic Field
		Consequences of Earths Magnetic Field Reversal
	Discovery of Formation of Different Continents from One Big Land Mass
		Clues Introduced by Ortelius, Suess, Mantovani, Wegener, and Toit
		Hypotheses Proposed for Explaining Continental Drift
		Arthur Holmess Proposal of Convection Current Cells in Earths Mantle in Support of Continental Drift
		Studies of Earthquakes and Mountain Building in Support of Continental Drift
	Evolving the Notion of Tectonic Plates Floating on Molten Lava
		Discovery of Volcanic Ridge Systems Snaking Around the Globe in a Chain
		Discoveries of Zebra Stripe-like Magnetic Patterns and Increasing Age of Seafloor with Distance From Ridge Crests
		Proposal of Seafloor Spreading Theory-Contribution by Hess
		Plate Tectonics-Unification of Continental Drift and Seafloor Spreading
	Triple Junctions on Seafloors
		R-R-R Triple Junctions
			Afar triple junction
			Rodrigues triple junction
			Azores triple junction
		The Only Known T-T-T Junction on Earth-Boso Triple Junction
		Difficult-to-Classify Triple Junction-Bouvet Triple Junction
		Specialty of Chile Triple Junction
	Rotating Microplates
		Clockwork Motion by Seafloor Microplates
		The 2015 Discovery of the First Oceanic Microplate in the Indian Ocean
	Formation of Submarine Mountain Chains, Seamounts, Island Arcs, Mud Volcanoes, Canyons, and Trenches
		Seafloor Mountain Chains
		Seamounts
		Submarine Magmatic-Volcanic Eruptions and Island Arcs
		Magmatic Volcanoes Versus Mud Volcanoes
			Seafloor mud volcanoes and cold-seep communities
			Island mud volcanoes
			Coastal mud volcanoes
		Submarine Canyons
		Subduction Zones and Submarine Trenches
	References
	Bibliography
Secrets of Bermuda Triangle and Formation of Polymetallic Nodules
	Introduction
	Riddle of the Bermuda Triangle Imbroglio
		Fire in the Sea
		Trawler Wreck in Witchs Hole Pockmark
		Methane Hydrates and the Bermuda Triangle
		The Role of Warm Gulf Stream
	Gas Hydrate Emission Can Drown Ships-Mays and Monaghans Hypothesis
		Laboratory Scale Experimental Studies
		Numerical Simulations
		Criteria for Sinking/NonSinking
	Carpet of ``Dark Gold´´ Paved Over the Seafloor
		Devices Used for Collection of Polymetallic Nodules From the Ocean Floor
			Boomerang Grab
			Dredge
			Box-Corer
			Vibro-Corer
		Specialty and Structure of Nodules
		Factors Influencing Nodule Formation
		Nucleating Materials
		Morphological Parameters
			Shape of Nodules
			Surface Texture
		Internal Features of Nodules
			Thickness of Oxide Layer in Nodules
			Internal Microstructure of Nodules
		Chemical Composition of Nodules
		Role of Micro-Organisms in the Formation of Nodules
		Buried Nodules
		Rare Earth Elements in Nodules
		Distribution of Nodules in the World Oceans
	References
	Bibliography
Complex Wave Motions and Thermal Structure of the Oceans
	Riddle of the Biblical Crossing of the Red Sea by Israelites Led by Moses
		The Biblical Story
		In Search of Scientific Explanations to the Vexed Question
	Invisible Colossal Waves Below Sea Surface-Internal Waves
		Early History of Internal Wave Observations and Studies
		Internal Wave-Induced Hazards
		Similarities and Dissimilarities Between Surface Waves and Internal Waves
		Peculiarities of Solitary Waves
		Observations of Solitary Internal Wave Packets
		Internal Waves-Roles of Seafloor Obstacles and Currents
		Measurement of Internal Waves and Internal Solitary Waves
			In Situ Measurements
			Remote Measurements
		International Efforts in the Study of Internal Waves
		Climatologic and Ecological Benefits of Internal Waves
			Climatologic Benefits
			Ecological Benefits
	Intricate Tidal Motions in Topographically Complex Water Bodies
		General Characteristics of Tidal Oscillations
		Topographical Influences on Tidal Range and Tidal Pattern
		Wall of Tumbling and Foaming Water Waves-Tidal Bore
			Story of Tidal Bores
			Thundering Noise of Tidal Bores
			Geomorphological Consequences of Tidal Bores
			Generation and Propagation Mechanisms of Tidal Bores
			Qiantang Bore-Most Spectacular Bore in the World
		Apparent Phase Reversal of Tide Wave Over Short Distance and Its Consequences
		Ocean Basins Experiencing No Tidal Motions-Amphitrophic Zones
		Implications of Coastal Tides and Tidal Bores
	Subsurface Warm Water Layer Sandwiched Between Colder Waters Above and Below-Thermal Inversion
		Prominent Thermal Inversion Zones in the World Oceans
		Temperature Inversion Formation Mechanisms
			Freshwater Influx
			Sea Surface Cooling
			Horizontal Advection
				Thermohaline Driving
				Wind Driving
		Climatic Impact of Oceanic Temperature Inversion
	References
	Bibliography
The Role of Oceans in the Origin of Life and in Biological Evolution
	Introduction
		Origin of Single-Cell Organisms in Oceans
		Extinction Events That Affected Life on Earth
		Recent Discovery of Clue to Life on Earth At Least 4.1 Billion Years Ago
		Understanding the Complexities of Seafloors and Oceans
	Darwin\'s Theory of Natural Selection
		Darwin\'s Visit to the Galapagos Islands
		Shaping Darwin\'s New World View-Inspiration From Marine Iguanas
	Subseafloor Microbial LifePartial Clues to the Origin of Life
	Organisms Living Above 100C Under Anaerobic Conditions
		Bacteria Living in Deep Subseafloor Sediments
		Bacteria Living in Submarine Hydrothermal Areas
		Bacteria Living in Submarine Volcanoes
	Microbial Activity in Hydrothermal Fluids-The ``Zinc World´´ Hypothesis
	Significance of Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vents
	Homochirality of Amino Acids and Sugars
		DNA and RNA
		tRNA and mRNA
		DNA Versus RNA in Terms of Identifying Live Cells
		Nucleotides
		The ``RNA World´´ Hypothesis
			``Chicken-or-the-Egg´´ Dilemma
			Objections to the ``RNA World´´ Hypothesis
			Proto-RNA and Flexible Nucleic Acid
			The ``Peptide-RNA World´´ Hypothesis
			Riboswitches and the ``RNA World´´
	The 2015 Discovery of a Missing Piece of the Evolution Puzzle-Lokiarchaeota
	The 2015 Discovery of a New Homo Genus Species
	References
	Bibliography
Astronomical and Biological Organizational Relationships
	Fundamental Discoveries in Astronomical and Cosmological Sciences
		Discovering the Theory of Sun-Centric Model of Solar System
		Propounding the Idea of an Infinite and Homogeneous Universe and Cosmic Pluralism
		Discovering Fundamental Laws of Planetary Motion
		Advancing Astronomy by Construction of the Telescope
		Discovering Laws of Motion and Universal Law of Gravitation
		Discovering Theories of Relativity
		Discovery of Galaxies Moving Away From Earth
		Shedding New Light on the Working of the Universe
		Proposing a Linear Relationship Between a Galaxy\'s Distance and its Redshift
		Propounding the Notion of an Expanding Universe
		Eddington\'s Efforts in Making Scientific Theories Beyond Linguistic Barriers
		Big Bang Theory on the Origin of the Universe
		Predictions of Cosmic Background Radiation
		Discovery of Cosmic Background Radiation in Support of the Big Bang Theory
		Discovery of Cepheid Variables
	Chemical Evolution Leading to the Origin of Life-Role of Primitive Oceans
	Partial Clues to Origin of Life in Submarine Hydrothermal Vents
	Chemical Evolution of Life-Supporting Structures
		Amino Acids
		Miller-Urey ``Prebiotic Soup´´ Experiment
	Origin of Life
		Probable Specialties of the Earliest Living Systems
		Two Opposing Views on Origin of Life
	Gene and Genetic Code
	Horizontal Gene Transfer: A Story of Genetic Success
	Safeguarding Genetic Information: The 2015 Nobel Prize Winning Discovery
	Correlation Between Biological and Astronomical Organizations: Kumar\'s Hypothesis
		Functional Resemblance Between DNA and Astronomy
		Mathematical Relationships Among Codons in the Genetic Code, Amino Acids, and the Astro-Molecular Constant
		Functional Resemblance Between Cells and Astronomy
		Microcosm and Macrocosm
	Biological Evolution: The Role of Islands
	Discoveries in Life Science: Cloning by Nuclear Transfer
		Cloning Technique
		Ethical Objections to Cloning
		Positive Attributions of Cloning
			Creation of valuable pharmaceutical products and cures for genetic diseases
			Genetic modification of pigs for organ transplantation into humans
			Preserving endangered species
	Self-Organization in the Origin of the Universe and Biological Evolution
	How Life Originated: A Puzzle to be Resolved
	Religious Beliefs and Science
	References
	Bibliography
Seafloor Hot Chimneys and Cold Seeps: Mysterious Life Around Them
	Introduction
	Formation of Hydrothermal Vents
	Tectonic and Magmatic Controls on Hydrothermal Activity
		Hydrothermal Venting in Magma Deserts
		Hydrothermal Activity on Near-Arc Sections of Back-Arc Ridges
		Subduction Zone Venting: A Unique Type of Venting Process
	Serpentinization: An Important Set of Geochemical Reactions
	Vent Fluid Composition and Temperature
		Black Smoker and White Smoker Venting
		Gas Emission
		Particle Emission
		Manganese and Sulfide Deposition
		Cold Vent
	Shallow Water Hydrothermal Activity
	Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Activity
	Iron Domination and Potential for Microbial Carbon Fixation: Loihi Plume
	Biological Significances of Submarine Hydrothermal Vents
		Chemosynthesis
		Anaerobic Methane Oxidation
		Creatures Devoid of Eyes, Mouth, Intestine
		Exotic World of Diverse Biological Communities Around Seafloor Geysers
		Role of Vent Flow on Selective Dominance of Species
		Endemism Among Hydrothermal Biological Communities
		Distinct Biogeographic Provinces With Quite Different Vent Populations
		Factors Controlling Biogeography of Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Species
		Communication between Vent Fauna in the Atlantic, Indian, and Western Pacific Oceans
	Unique Thermostable Enzymes in Hydrothermal Vent Worm
	Exotic World of Marine Organisms Around Cold Seeps
	Understanding the History of Benthic Organisms and Their Source of Food
	Technologies Used for Hydrothermal Vents Studies
		Underwater Cameras and Biogeochemical Sampling Devices
		ROVs, AUVs, and Manned Submersibles
		Seafloor-Mounted Monitoring Devices
		Special Sampling Systems
		Turbidity Measuring Device for Detecting Hydrothermal Plumes
	Conclusions
	References
	Bibliography
Citadel-Building: Tiny Creatures in the Oceans-Corals
	Introduction
		Corals and Coral Reefs
		Coral Reefs-Abode of a Multitude of Colorful and Amazing Creatures
		Darwin\'s Paradox
		Role of Seamounts on Reef-Building
		Artificial Reefs Built on Offshore Structures Platforms and Wrecked Ships
	Coral Reefs and the Exotic Life on and Around Them
		Corals
		New Family of Atlantic Corals
		Mesophotic Coral Reef Ecosystems
		Deep-Water Corals
	Coral Survey Techniques
		Photography and Video Shooting During Scuba Diving
		Monitoring Using Submersibles
		Video-Mapping Using Air-Borne Imaging Devices
		Software-Driven Mapping System
		High-Resolution Acoustic Technologies and Pixel Amplitude Analysis of Backscatter Images
		Coral-Bed Classification System-A Hydro-Acoustic Remote Sensing Tool
		Satellites and Computerized Expert Systems to Monitor Coral Reefs
	Threat to Coral Reefs
		Increase in Seawater Temperature
		Seawater Contamination by Toxic Microscopic Plants
		Predation
		Coral Collection for Trade
		Human Activities
		Ocean Acidification
			Effect on Ocean pH
			Acidification due to Anthropogenic Factors
			Acidification due to Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide
			Acidification Through Submarine Springs
		Damage from Earthquakes, Tsunamis, and Dredging
	Need for Conservation and Restoration of Coral Reefs
	Ocean Acidification-Resistant Coral Reefs
	Role of Tiny Crabs in Preventing Coral Death in South Pacific
	Ancient Coral Reef Record Gives History of El Niño
	Importance of Coral Reef Research and Management
	An Experimental Platform for Direct Microscopic Study of Live Coral Polyps
		Micro-Propagation of Coral Polyps
		The ``Coral-on-a-Chip´´ Microfluidic System
		In Vivo Imaging of Calcification and Skeleton-Genesis
		Specialty of ``Coral-on-a-Chip´´ Microfluidic System
	References
	Bibliography
Marine Creatures With a Difference
	Introduction
	Light-Capturing Pigment in Microscopic Marine Bacteria
	Marine Organisms That Carry Living Light
		Blue Light-Beaming Ostracods
		Luminous Deep-Sea Sharks: Lantern Sharks and Kitefin Sharks
		Precious Molecule From Jellyfish: Nobel Prize-Winning Discovery
			Beginning of a Long Journey to a Great Discovery
			Role of Green Fluorescent Protein in Revolutionizing Medical Research
			Misfortune to a Significant Contributor in the Nobel Prize-Winning Discovery
	Fishes That Play Hide and Seek
	Marine Creatures That Mimic
	Gelatinous Creatures
		Bumpy Jellyfish in Deep Sea
		Box Jellyfish: Highly Venomous Mysterious Creature
			Chironex fleckeri Species
			Irukandji Species and Irukandji Syndrome
			Treatment for Box Jellyfish Sting Victims
		Ecosystem Impact of Jellyfish Explosion
	Lionfish: Decimator of Fish Populations and Threat to Coral Reef Ecosystems
	Deep-Sea Vampire Squid: Thriving in the Oxygen Minimum Zone
	Giant Squid and Colossal Squid
		Giant Squid
		Colossal Squid
	Life at Submarine Canyons and Deep-Sea Trenches
	Dead Whales: Providing Deep-Sea Living Legacy
	References
	Bibliography
Oceans: Abode of Nutraceuticals, Pharmaceuticals, and Biotoxins
	Introduction
	Nutraceutical Products From Marine Flora and Fauna
		Nutraceuticals From Marine Flora
			Valuable Products From Brown, Blue, Green, Blue-Green, and Red Algae
			Spirulina: Blue-Green Alga Which Provides Quick Energy and Nourishment
			Commercial Production of Spirulina
		Nutraceutical Products From Marine Fauna
	Pharmaceutical Products From Marine Flora and Fauna
		History of the Use of Marine Resources in Traditional Medicines
			Horseshoe Crabs
			Sea Horses
			Jellyfish
			Green Mussels
			Seaweeds
			Sea Cucumbers
		Biomedical Potential of Marine Natural Products
		Importance of Marine Invertebrates and Microorganisms in Drug Production
		Marine Natural Products Used as Anticancer Drugs
			Primary and Metastatic Cancers
			Modern Technologies Used for Cancer Detection
			Treatments Used Against Cancer
			Anticancer Drugs of Marine Origin
		Anticancer Drugs Produced by Marine Sponges
			Marine Sponge Alkaloids
			Discodermolides
		Anticancer Drugs Produced From Tunicates
			Ecteinascidins
			Didemnins
			Aplidine
		Anticancer Drug-Kahalalide-Produced From Molluscs
		Anticancer Drugs-Dolastatins-Produced by Marine Shell-Less Mollusk
		Bioactive Products From Marine Bacteria and Fungi
			Bioactive Natural Products From Marine Bacteria
			Bioactive Products From Marine Cyanobacteria
			Bioactive Natural Products From Marine Fungi
		Trends in the Success of Drug Discovery From Marine Natural Products
	Immunotoxins and Biotoxins in Marine Flora and Fauna
		Immunotoxins From Fungi
		Biotoxins in Algal Blooms
		Effects of Saxitoxin on Human and Environmental Health
		Neurotoxin-Induced Sporadic Mass Mortalities of Marine Animals, Fish, and Birds
	Detection of Marine Biotoxins in Seafood
	Conclusions
	References
	Bibliography
Magic With Colors-Sea Surface Changes
	Introduction
	Phytoplankton Bloom: Sea Surface Turning Green
		Impacts of El Niño-Warming and La Niña-Cooling Events on Chlorophyll Levels and Plant Life in the Oceans
		Iron Fertilization: Maintaining Healthy Planktonic Biomass Distribution in the Oceans
		Fluorescence Emission by Phytoplankton
		Release of Dimethyl Sulfide Gas by Phytoplankton: Role in Countering Global Warming
		Release of Iodine Vapors from Plankton and Algae: Countering Global Warming
		Phytoplankton and Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Levels
	Trichodesmium Bloom: Turning Sea Surface Brown
		Characteristics of Trichodesmium Bloom
		Remote Detection of Trichodesmium Bloom
	Coccolithophore Bloom: Turning Sea Surface Milky White
	References
	Bibliography
Index