Introductory Chemistry Essentials

Cover......Page 1
Title......Page 6
Copyright......Page 7
Contents......Page 10
Preface......Page 23
 1.1 Soda Pop Fizz......Page 42
 1.3 All Things Are Made of Atoms and Molecules......Page 44
 1.4 The Scientific Method: How Chemists Think......Page 45
 1.5 A Beginning Chemist: How to Succeed......Page 47
 CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 48
 EXERCISES......Page 49
 2.2 Scientific Notation: Writing Large and Small Numbers......Page 52
 2.3 Significant Figures: Writing Numbers to Reflect Precision......Page 55
  Counting Significant Figures......Page 56
  Exact Numbers......Page 57
  CHEMISTRY IN THE MEDIA The COBE Satellite and Very Precise Measurements That Illuminate Our Cosmic Past......Page 58
  Rounding......Page 59
  Addition and Subtraction......Page 60
  Calculations Involving Both Multiplication/Division and Addition/Subtraction......Page 61
  The Base Units......Page 63
  Prefix Multipliers......Page 64
  Derived Units......Page 65
  Converting Between Units......Page 66
  General Problem-Solving Strategy......Page 68
  Problem-Solving Procedure Solving Unit Conversion Problems......Page 69
 2.7 Solving Multistep Unit Conversion Problems......Page 70
 2.8 Units Raised to a Power......Page 72
  CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Drug Dosage......Page 73
  Calculating Density......Page 75
  Density as a Conversion Factor......Page 76
 2.10 Numerical Problem-Solving Strategies and the Solution Map......Page 78
  Problem-Solving Procedure Solving Numerical Problems......Page 79
 CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 80
 EXERCISES......Page 86
 3.2 What Is Matter?......Page 96
 3.3 Classifying Matter According to Its State: Solid, Liquid, and Gas......Page 98
 3.4 Classifying Matter According to Its Composition: Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures......Page 99
 3.5 Differences in Matter: Physical and Chemical Properties......Page 102
 3.6 Changes in Matter: Physical and Chemical Changes......Page 104
 3.7 Conservation of Mass: There Is No New Matter......Page 106
 3.8 Energy......Page 107
  Units of Energy......Page 108
 3.9 Energy and Chemical and Physical Change......Page 110
 3.10 Temperature: Random Motion of Molecules and Atoms......Page 111
 3.11 Temperature Changes: Heat Capacity......Page 115
 3.12 Energy and Heat Capacity Calculations......Page 116
 CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 120
 EXERCISES......Page 125
 4.1 Experiencing Atoms at Tiburon......Page 134
 4.2 Indivisible: The Atomic Theory......Page 135
 4.3 The Nuclear Atom......Page 136
 4.4 The Properties of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons......Page 138
  EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Solid Matter?......Page 139
 4.5 Elements: Defined by Their Numbers of Protons......Page 140
 4.6 Looking for Patterns: The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table......Page 143
 4.7 Ions: Losing and Gaining Electrons......Page 147
  Ions and the Periodic Table......Page 148
 4.8 Isotopes: When the Number of Neutrons Varies......Page 150
 4.9 Atomic Mass: The Average Mass of an Element’s Atoms......Page 152
  CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT Radioactive Isotopes at Hanford, Washington......Page 153
 CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 155
 EXERCISES......Page 158
 5.1 Sugar and Salt......Page 168
 5.2 Compounds Display Constant Composition......Page 169
 5.3 Chemical Formulas: How to Represent Compounds......Page 170
  Polyatomic Ions in Chemical Formulas......Page 172
  Types of Chemical Formulas......Page 173
  Molecular Compounds......Page 174
  Ionic Compounds......Page 175
  Problem-Solving Procedure Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds......Page 177
  Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions......Page 178
 5.7 Naming Ionic Compounds......Page 179
  Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms Only One Type of Cation......Page 180
  Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms More Than One Type of Cation......Page 181
  Naming Ionic Compounds Containing a Polyatomic Ion......Page 182
  EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Polyatomic Ions......Page 183
 5.8 Naming Molecular Compounds......Page 184
  Naming Binary Acids......Page 185
  Naming Oxyacids......Page 186
 5.10 Nomenclature Summary......Page 187
  Acids......Page 188
 5.11 Formula Mass: The Mass of a Molecule or Formula Unit......Page 189
 CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 190
 EXERCISES......Page 195
 6.1 How Much Sodium?......Page 206
 6.2 Counting Nails by the Pound......Page 207
  Converting between Moles and Number of Atoms......Page 208
  Converting between Grams and Moles of an Element......Page 209
  Converting between Grams of an Element and Number of Atoms......Page 212
  Converting between Grams and Moles of a Compound......Page 213
  Converting between Grams of a Compound and Number of Molecules......Page 215
 6.5 Chemical Formulas as Conversion Factors......Page 216
  Converting between Grams of a Compound and Moles of a Constituent Element......Page 217
  Converting between Grams of a Compound and Grams of a Constituent Element......Page 218
  CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT Chlorine in Chlorofluorocarbons......Page 220
 6.6 Mass Percent Composition of Compounds......Page 221
 6.7 Mass Percent Composition from a Chemical Formula......Page 222
 6.8 Calculating Empirical Formulas for Compounds......Page 224
  Calculating an Empirical Formula from Experimental Data......Page 225
  Problem-Solving Procedure Obtaining an Empirical Formula from Experimental Data......Page 226
 6.9 Calculating Molecular Formulas for Compounds......Page 227
 CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 229
 EXERCISES......Page 235
 7.1 Grade School Volcanoes, Automobiles, and Laundry Detergents......Page 244
 7.2 Evidence of a Chemical Reaction......Page 245
 7.3 The Chemical Equation......Page 248
 7.4 How to Write Balanced Chemical Equations......Page 250
  Problem-Solving Procedure Writing Balanced Chemical Equations......Page 251
 7.5 Aqueous Solutions and Solubility: Compounds Dissolved in Water......Page 253
  Solubility......Page 254
  Predicting Precipitation Reactions......Page 257
  Problem-Solving Procedure Writing Equations for Precipitation Reactions......Page 259
 7.7 Writing Chemical Equations for Reactions in Solution: Molecular, Complete Ionic, and Net Ionic Equations......Page 260
  Acid–Base (Neutralization) Reactions......Page 262
  Gas Evolution Reactions......Page 263
 7.9 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions......Page 265
  Combustion Reactions......Page 266
 7.10 Classifying Chemical Reactions......Page 267
  Classifying Chemical Reactions by What Atoms Do......Page 268
  Classification Flowchart......Page 270
 CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 272
 EXERCISES......Page 278
 8.1 Climate Change: Too Much Carbon Dioxide......Page 288
 8.2 Making Pancakes: Relationships between Ingredients......Page 289
 8.3 Making Molecules: Mole-to-Mole Conversions......Page 290
 8.4 Making Molecules: Mass-to-Mass Conversions......Page 292
  CHEMISTRY IN THE MEDIA The Controversy over Oxygenated Fuels......Page 293
 8.5 More Pancakes: Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield......Page 296
 8.6 Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield from Initial Masses of Reactants......Page 299
 8.7 Enthalpy: A Measure of the Heat Evolved or Absorbed in a Reaction......Page 303
  Sign of Hrxn......Page 304
  Stoichiometry of Hrxn......Page 305
 CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 307
 KEY TERMS......Page 311
 EXERCISES......Page 312
 9.1 Blimps, Balloons, and Models of the Atom......Page 324
 9.2 Light: Electromagnetic Radiation......Page 325
 9.3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum......Page 327
  CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Radiation Treatment for Cancer......Page 329
 9.4 The Bohr Model: Atoms with Orbits......Page 330
  Baseball Paths and Electron Probability Maps......Page 333
 9.6 Quantum-Mechanical Orbitals and Electron Configurations......Page 334
  Quantum-Mechanical Orbitals......Page 335
  Electron Configurations: How Electrons Occupy Orbitals......Page 337
 9.7 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table......Page 341
 9.8 The Explanatory Power of the Quantum-Mechanical Model......Page 344
  Atomic Size......Page 346
  Ionization Energy......Page 348
  Metallic Character......Page 350
 CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 352
 EXERCISES......Page 355
 10.1 Bonding Models and AIDS Drugs......Page 364
 10.2 Representing Valence Electrons with Dots......Page 365
 10.3 Lewis Structures of Ionic Compounds: Electrons Transferred......Page 366
 10.4 Covalent Lewis Structures: Electrons Shared......Page 367
  Double and Triple Bonds......Page 368
 10.5 Writing Lewis Structures for Covalent Compounds......Page 369
  Problem-Solving Procedure Writing Lewis Structures for Covalent Compounds......Page 370
  Writing Lewis Structures for Polyatomic Ions......Page 371
  Exceptions to the Octet Rule......Page 372
 10.6 Resonance: Equivalent Lewis Structures for the Same Molecule......Page 373
 10.7 Predicting the Shapes of Molecules......Page 374
  CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT The Lewis Structure of Ozone......Page 375
  Representing Molecular Geometries on Paper......Page 378
  CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Fooled by Molecular Shape......Page 379
  Electronegativity......Page 380
  Polar Bonds and Polar Molecules......Page 382
  EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY How Soap Works......Page 384
 CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 385
 EXERCISES......Page 388
 11.1 Extra-Long Straws......Page 398
 11.2 Kinetic Molecular Theory: A Model for Gases......Page 399
 11.3 Pressure: The Result of Constant Molecular Collisions......Page 401
  Pressure Units......Page 402
  Pressure Unit Conversion......Page 403
 11.4 Boyle’s Law: Pressure and Volume......Page 404
  EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Airplane Cabin Pressurization......Page 405
  EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Extra-long Snorkels......Page 409
 11.5 Charles’s Law: Volume and Temperature......Page 410
 11.6 The Combined Gas Law: Pressure, Volume, and Temperature......Page 414
 11.7 Avogadro’s Law: Volume and Moles......Page 416
 11.8 The Ideal Gas Law: Pressure, Volume, Temperature, and Moles......Page 418
  Molar Mass of a Gas from the Ideal Gas Law......Page 422
 11.9 Mixtures of Gases: Why Deep-Sea Divers Breathe a Mixture of Helium and Oxygen......Page 424
  Deep-Sea Diving and Partial Pressure......Page 426
  Collecting Gases over Water......Page 427
 11.10 Gases in Chemical Reactions......Page 428
  Molar Volume at Standard Temperature and Pressure......Page 431
  CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT Air Pollution......Page 433
 CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 434
 EXERCISES......Page 439
 12.1 Interactions between Molecules......Page 450
 12.2 Properties of Liquids and Solids......Page 451
 12.3 Intermolecular Forces in Action: Surface Tension and Viscosity......Page 452
  Viscosity......Page 453
 12.4 Evaporation and Condensation......Page 454
  Boiling......Page 456
  Energetics of Evaporation and Condensation......Page 457
  Heat of Vaporization......Page 458
 12.5 Melting, Freezing, and Sublimation......Page 459
  Heat of Fusion......Page 460
  Sublimation......Page 462
  Dispersion Force......Page 464
  Dipole–Dipole Force......Page 465
  Hydrogen Bonding......Page 467
  Ion–Dipole Force......Page 468
  CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Hydrogen Bonding in DNA......Page 469
  Molecular Solids......Page 471
  Atomic Solids......Page 472
 12.8 Water: A Remarkable Molecule......Page 473
  CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT Water Pollution......Page 474
 CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 475
 EXERCISES......Page 479
 13.1 Tragedy in Cameroon......Page 486
 13.2 Solutions: Homogeneous Mixtures......Page 487
 13.3 Solutions of Solids Dissolved in Water: How to Make Rock Candy......Page 488
  Solubility and Saturation......Page 489
  Electrolyte Solutions: Dissolved Ionic Solids......Page 490
 13.4 Solutions of Gases in Water: How Soda Pop Gets Its Fizz......Page 491
  Mass Percent......Page 493
  Using Mass Percent in Calculations......Page 494
 13.6 Specifying Solution Concentration: Molarity......Page 496
  CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT The Dirty Dozen......Page 497
  Using Molarity in Calculations......Page 498
 13.7 Solution Dilution......Page 500
 13.8 Solution Stoichiometry......Page 502
  Freezing Point Depression......Page 505
  Boiling Point Elevation......Page 507
 13.10 Osmosis: Why Drinking Salt Water Causes Dehydration......Page 509
  CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Solutions in Medicine......Page 510
 CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 511
 EXERCISES......Page 517
 14.1 Sour Patch Kids and International Spy Movies......Page 526
 14.2 Acids: Properties and Examples......Page 527
 14.3 Bases: Properties and Examples......Page 528
  The Arrhenius Definition......Page 529
  The Brønsted–Lowry Definition......Page 530
  Neutralization Reactions......Page 532
  Acid Reactions......Page 533
 14.6 Acid–Base Titration: A Way to Quantify the Amount of Acid or Base in a Solution......Page 535
  Strong Acids......Page 538
  Weak Acids......Page 539
  Weak Bases......Page 542
 14.8 Water: Acid and Base in One......Page 543
 14.9 The pH and pOH Scales: Ways to Express Acidity and Basicity......Page 546
  Calculating pH from [H3O+]......Page 547
  Calculating [H3O+] from pH......Page 548
  The pOH Scale......Page 549
 14.10 Buffers: Solutions That Resist pH Change......Page 550
  CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Alkaloids......Page 551
 CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 553
 EXERCISES......Page 559
 15.1 Life: Controlled Disequilibrium......Page 568
  Collision Theory......Page 569
  How Concentration Affects the Rate of a Reaction......Page 571
  How Temperature Affects the Rate of a Reaction......Page 572
 15.3 The Idea of Dynamic Chemical Equilibrium......Page 573
  Writing Equilibrium Constant Expressions for Chemical Reactions......Page 576
  The Significance of the Equilibrium Constant......Page 577
 15.5 Heterogeneous Equilibria: The Equilibrium Expression for Reactions Involving a Solid or a Liquid......Page 579
  Calculating Equilibrium Constants......Page 580
  Using Equilibrium Constants in Calculations......Page 582
 15.7 Disturbing a Reaction at Equilibrium: Le Châtelier’s Principle......Page 583
 15.8 The Effect of a Concentration Change on Equilibrium......Page 585
 15.9 The Effect of a Volume Change on Equilibrium......Page 587
  CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH How a Developing Fetus Gets Oxygen from Its Mother......Page 589
 15.10 The Effect of a Temperature Change on Equilibrium......Page 590
 15.11 The Solubility-Product Constant......Page 592
  Using Ksp to Determine Molar Solubility......Page 593
  EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Hard Water......Page 594
  How Activation Energies Affect Reaction Rates......Page 595
  Catalysts Lower the Activation Energy......Page 597
  Enzymes: Biological Catalysts......Page 598
 CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 599
 EXERCISES......Page 603
 16.1 The End of the Internal Combustion Engine?......Page 614
 16.2 Oxidation and Reduction: Some Definitions......Page 615
 16.3 Oxidation States: Electron Bookkeeping......Page 618
  EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY The Bleaching of Hair......Page 620
 16.4 Balancing Redox Equations......Page 621
  Problem-Solving Procedure Balancing Redox Equations Using the Half-Reaction Method......Page 622
 16.5 The Activity Series: Predicting Spontaneous Redox Reactions......Page 626
  Predicting Whether a Metal Will Dissolve in Acid......Page 629
 16.6 Batteries: Using Chemistry to Generate Electricity......Page 630
  Dry-Cell Batteries......Page 632
  Fuel Cells......Page 633
 16.7 Electrolysis: Using Electricity to Do Chemistry......Page 634
 16.8 Corrosion: Undesirable Redox Reactions......Page 635
  EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY The Fuel-Cell Breathalyzer......Page 636
 CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 637
 EXERCISES......Page 641
 17.1 Diagnosing Appendicitis......Page 650
 17.2 The Discovery of Radioactivity......Page 651
 17.3 Types of Radioactivity: Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Decay......Page 652
  Alpha (α) Radiation......Page 653
  Beta (β) Radiation......Page 655
  Gamma (γ) Radiation......Page 656
  Positron Emission......Page 657
 17.4 Detecting Radioactivity......Page 659
 17.5 Natural Radioactivity and Half-Life......Page 660
  CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Environmental Radon......Page 661
  A Natural Radioactive Decay Series......Page 662
 17.6 Radiocarbon Dating: Using Radioactivity to Measure the Age of Fossils and Other Artifacts......Page 663
  CHEMISTRY IN THE MEDIA The Shroud of Turin......Page 664
 17.7 The Discovery of Fission and the Atomic Bomb......Page 665
 17.8 Nuclear Power: Using Fission to Generate Electricity......Page 667
 17.9 Nuclear Fusion: The Power of the Sun......Page 668
  Increased Cancer Risk......Page 669
  Isotope Scanning......Page 670
  Radiotherapy......Page 671
 CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 672
 EXERCISES......Page 675
 18.1 What Do I Smell?......Page 682
 18.2 Vitalism: The Difference Between Organic and Inorganic......Page 683
 18.3 Carbon: A Versatile Atom......Page 684
  CHEMISTRY IN THE MEDIA The Origin of Life......Page 685
 18.4 Hydrocarbons: Compounds Containing Only Carbon and Hydrogen......Page 686
 18.5 Alkanes: Saturated Hydrocarbons......Page 687
  CHEMISTRY IN THE MEDIA Environmental Problems Associated with Hydrocarbon Combustion......Page 688
 18.6 Isomers: Same Formula, Different Structure......Page 692
 18.7 Naming Alkanes......Page 693
  Problem-Solving Procedure Naming Alkanes......Page 694
 18.8 Alkenes and Alkynes......Page 696
  Naming Alkenes and Alkynes......Page 698
 18.9 Hydrocarbon Reactions......Page 699
  Alkene and Alkyne Addition Reactions......Page 700
 18.10 Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 701
  Naming Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 702
 18.11 Functional Groups......Page 704
  Naming Alcohols......Page 705
  Naming Ethers......Page 706
 18.14 Aldehydes and Ketones......Page 707
  About Aldehydes and Ketones......Page 708
 18.15 Carboxylic Acids and Esters......Page 709
  About Carboxylic Acids and Esters......Page 710
 18.16 Amines......Page 712
 18.17 Polymers......Page 713
  EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Kevlar: Stronger Than Steel......Page 715
 CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 716
 KEY TERMS......Page 720
 EXERCISES......Page 721
 19.1 The Human Genome Project......Page 736
 19.3 Carbohydrates: Sugar, Starch, and Fiber......Page 737
  Monosaccharides......Page 738
  Disaccharides......Page 739
  Polysaccharides......Page 740
  Fatty Acids......Page 742
  Fats and Oils......Page 743
  Other Lipids......Page 745
  CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Dietary Fats......Page 747
 19.5 Proteins......Page 748
 19.6 Protein Structure......Page 752
  Secondary Structure......Page 753
  Tertiary Structure......Page 755
  Quaternary Structure......Page 756
 19.7 Nucleic Acids: Molecular Blueprints......Page 757
 19.8 DNA Structure, DNA Replication, and Protein Synthesis......Page 759
  DNA Structure......Page 760
  DNA Replication......Page 761
  Protein Synthesis......Page 762
 CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 764
 EXERCISES......Page 767
Appendix: Mathematics Review......Page 776
Glossary......Page 782
Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises......Page 792
Photo Credits......Page 824
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