Introductory Biomechanics - From Cells to Organisms

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Series-title......Page 4
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 9
References......Page 14
Preface......Page 17
1 Introduction......Page 19
1.1 A brief history of biomechanics......Page 21
1.2 An outline of this book......Page 30
References......Page 33
2.1 Introduction to eukaryotic cellular architecture......Page 36
2.2 The cell’s energy system......Page 40
2.3 Overview of the cytoskeleton......Page 41
2.3.1 Actin filaments......Page 43
2.3.3 Microtubules......Page 46
2.4 Cell–matrix interactions......Page 47
2.5.1 Atomic force microscopy......Page 53
2.5.2 Optical trapping (“optical tweezers”)......Page 59
2.5.3 Magnetic bead microrheometry......Page 60
2.5.4 Micropipette aspiration......Page 61
Extensions of the micropipette aspiration technique......Page 68
2.6 Models of cellular biomechanical behavior......Page 71
2.6.1 Lumped parameter viscoelastic model of the cell......Page 72
2.6.2 Tensegrity model of the cytoskeleton......Page 78
Special case: T = 0......Page 80
Small strain case......Page 81
Unit cell model of the cytoskeleton......Page 87
2.6.4 Computational model of a chondrocyte in its matrix......Page 90
2.7.1 Mechanoreceptors......Page 94
Stretch-activated ion channels......Page 95
Cytoskeleton-mediated signal transduction......Page 96
Biochemically mediated signal transduction......Page 97
2.8 Techniques for mechanical stimulation of cells......Page 98
Hydrostatic compression......Page 99
2.8.2 Stretching......Page 100
Uniaxial stretch......Page 102
Biaxial stretch......Page 103
Viscometers......Page 104
Flow chambers......Page 107
2.9 Summary of mechanobiological effects on cells in selected tissues......Page 108
2.9.1 Endothelial cells in the vascular system......Page 109
2.9.2 Smooth muscle cells in vascular tissue......Page 111
2.9.3 Chondrocytes in articular cartilage......Page 112
2.9.4 Osteoblasts and osteocytes in bone......Page 113
2.10 Problems......Page 117
References......Page 129
3.1 Blood rheology......Page 153
3.1.1 Blood composition......Page 155
3.1.2 Relationship between blood composition and rheology......Page 158
3.1.3 Constitutive equation for blood......Page 163
3.2.1 Physical characteristics of blood flow patterns in vivo......Page 164
3.2.2 Steady blood flow at low flow rates......Page 167
3.2.3 Unsteady flow in large vessels......Page 172
3.3 Blood flow in small vessels......Page 176
3.3.1 Fahraeus–Lindqvist effect......Page 177
3.3.2 “Inverse” Fahraeus–Lindqvist effect......Page 180
3.4 Problems......Page 181
References......Page 195
4.1 Anatomy of the vasculature......Page 198
4.2 The heart......Page 203
4.2.1 Gross anatomy of the heart......Page 205
4.2.2 Qualitative description of cardiac pumping......Page 206
4.2.3 Cardiac pumping power and ventricular function......Page 209
4.3.1 Systolic and diastolic pressure......Page 213
4.3.2 Windkessel model......Page 214
4.3.3 Arterial wall structure and elasticity......Page 217
4.3.4 Elastic waves......Page 220
4.3.5 Pressure–flow relationships: purely oscillatory flow......Page 228
4.3.6 Pressure–flow relationships: mean flow effects......Page 231
Variation of arterial properties......Page 232
Effects of branching and taper......Page 233
4.4 The capillaries......Page 238
4.4.1 Capillary filtration: the experiments of Landis......Page 241
4.4.2 Osmotic pressure......Page 243
4.4.3 Quantitative analysis of capillary leakage......Page 245
4.5 The veins......Page 246
4.6 Scaling of hemodynamic variables......Page 247
4.7 Problems......Page 252
References......Page 269
5.1 Interstitial fluid flow......Page 274
5.1.1 Darcy’s law......Page 275
5.1.2 Clearance of edema......Page 276
Detailed parameter derivation......Page 279
5.2 Problems......Page 282
References......Page 283
6.1 Ocular anatomy......Page 284
6.2 Biomechanics of glaucoma......Page 285
6.2.1 Tonometry......Page 286
6.2.2 Drainage of aqueous humor in normal and glaucomatous eyes......Page 291
6.2.3 Aqueous humor circulation in the anterior chamber......Page 297
6.2.4 Optic nerve head biomechanics......Page 298
6.3 Ocular blood flow......Page 305
6.4 Problems......Page 308
References......Page 310
7.1.1 The conducting airways and pulmonary vasculature......Page 316
7.1.2 Associated structures......Page 319
7.2 Biomechanics of breathing......Page 321
7.3 Lung elasticity and surface tension effects......Page 322
7.4 Mass transfer......Page 327
7.4.1 Blood-side acinar mass transfer......Page 329
Complexities associated with O2 and CO2 transport......Page 336
Assumptions of the blood-side model, and more sophisticated models......Page 338
7.4.2 Air-side acinar mass transfer......Page 341
7.4.3 Whole lung mass transfer......Page 342
7.5 Particle transport in the lung......Page 347
7.6 Problems......Page 350
References......Page 363
8 Muscles and movement......Page 366
8.1 Skeletal muscle morphology and physiology......Page 367
8.1.1 Isotonic versus isometric contraction......Page 373
8.2 Muscle constitutive modeling......Page 377
8.3.1 Parallel versus pinnate muscle types......Page 385
8.4.1 Foreleg motion in two species......Page 387
8.4.2 Flexion of the elbow......Page 389
8.4.3 Biomechanics of the knee......Page 399
8.5 Problems......Page 403
References......Page 410
9.1 Introduction to bone......Page 413
9.2 Composition and structure of bone......Page 416
9.2.2 Trabecular bone......Page 418
9.3 Biomechanical properties of cortical and trabecular bone......Page 421
9.3.1 Cortical bone mechanics......Page 422
9.3.2 Trabecular bone mechanics......Page 423
9.3.3 Trabecular bone mechanics: density dependence......Page 424
9.3.4 Trabecular bone mechanics: unit cell models......Page 427
9.4 Bone fracture and failure mechanics......Page 429
9.4.1 Fast fracture......Page 431
9.4.2 Fatigue fracture......Page 437
9.5 Functional adaptation and mechanobiology......Page 441
9.6 The design of bone......Page 443
9.7 Introduction to soft connective tissues......Page 445
9.8 Structure of collagen......Page 446
9.9.1 Ligament......Page 448
9.9.2 Tendon......Page 450
9.9.3 Cartilage......Page 452
9.10 Biomechanical properties of ligament, tendon, and cartilage......Page 453
9.10.1 Structural properties......Page 454
9.10.2 Material properties......Page 457
9.10.3 Material properties: tension......Page 459
9.10.4 Material properties: compression......Page 460
9.10.5 Material properties: viscoelasticity......Page 463
9.10.6 Material properties: biphasic mixture theory of cartilage......Page 469
9.11 Problems......Page 470
References......Page 473
10.1.1 Standing jump......Page 478
Pole vault......Page 482
Running high jump......Page 483
10.2.1 Walking......Page 485
10.2.2 Running......Page 493
10.3 Gait analysis......Page 495
10.3.1 Kinematics......Page 497
10.3.2 Anthropometry......Page 502
10.3.3 Kinetics......Page 505
Link segment model......Page 506
Joint reaction forces versus bone-on-bone forces......Page 513
10.4 Problems......Page 514
References......Page 521
Appendix The electrocardiogram......Page 523
References......Page 531
Index......Page 532