Introduction to Wind Turbine Aerodynamics (Green Energy and Technology)

Foreword
Preface to Second Edition
	Reference
Preface to First Edition
Acknowledgements
Contents
Nomenclature
List of Figures
1 Introduction
	1.1 The Meaning of Wind Turbine Aerodynamics
	1.2 Problems
	References
2 Types of Wind Turbines
	2.1 Historical and State-of-the-Art Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT)
	2.2 Nonstandard HAWTs
	2.3 Small Wind Turbines
	2.4 Vertical Axis Wind Turbines
	2.5 Diffuser Augmented Wind Turbines
	2.6 Drag-Driven Turbines
	2.7 Counter-Rotating Wind Turbines
	2.8 Airborne Wind Turbines
	2.9 Concluding Remarks
	2.10 Problems
	References
3 Basic Fluid Mechanics
	3.1 Basic Properties of Air
	3.2 The Laws of Fluid Mechanics in Integral Form
		3.2.1 Mass Conservation
		3.2.2 Balance of Momentum
		3.2.3 Conservation of Energy
	3.3 Differential Equations of Fluid Flow
		3.3.1 Continuity Equation in Differential Form
		3.3.2 Momentum Balance
		3.3.3 Differential Energy Equation
	3.4 Viscosity and Navier–Stokes Equations
	3.5 Potential Flow
		3.5.1 General 3D Potential Flow
		3.5.2 2D Potential Attached Flow
		3.5.3 2D Potential Flow Behind a Semi-infinite Set of Lamina
		3.5.4 2D Separated Flow
	3.6 Formulation of Fluid Mechanics in Terms of Vorticity and Vortices
		3.6.1 Flow and Forces
		3.6.2 Thin Airfoil Theory
		3.6.3 Viscous Thin Airfoil Theory
		3.6.4 Vortex Sheets
		3.6.5 Vorticity in Inviscid Flow
	3.7 Boundary Layer Theory
		3.7.1 The Concept of a Boundary Layer
		3.7.2 Boundary Layers with Pressure Gradient
		3.7.3 Integral Boundary Layer Equations
	3.8 Stability of Laminar Flow
	3.9 Turbulence
		3.9.1 Introduction
		3.9.2 Mathematical Theory of Turbulence
		3.9.3 The Physics of Turbulence
		3.9.4 Kolmogorov\'s Theory
		3.9.5 Dissipation Scales
		3.9.6 Turbulence as a Stochastic Process
		3.9.7 The Turbulent Boundary Layer
		3.9.8 The Log Law of the Wall
	3.10 Wind as Turbulent Flow in the Lower Atmosphere
	3.11 Problems
	References
4 Inflow Conditions to Wind Turbines
	4.1 Importance of Inflow Conditions to Rotor Performance
	4.2 Wind Shear
	4.3 Unsteady Inflow Versus Turbulence
	4.4 Measuring Wind
	4.5 Synthetic Winds for Load Calculation
	4.6 Synthetic Winds for CFD
		4.6.1 General Approach: From Experimental Data to Synthetic Time Series
		4.6.2 Digital Filters
		4.6.3 Adding Turbulence Close to the Region of Interest
	4.7 Problems
	References
5 Momentum Theories
	5.1 One-Dimensional Momentum Theory
		5.1.1 Forces
		5.1.2 Power
		5.1.3 Remarks on Beating Betz
	5.2 General Momentum Theory
	5.3 Limits and Extensions of General Momentum Theories
	5.4 The Blade Element Momentum Theory
		5.4.1 The Original Formulation
		5.4.2 Engineering Modifications
		5.4.3 Comparison to Actual Designs
	5.5 Optimum Rotors I
	5.6 Vertical Rotors
	5.7 Problems
	References
6 Application of Vortex Theory
	6.1 Vortices in Wind Turbine Flow
	6.2 Analytical Examples
	6.3 Vortex Patches
	6.4 Vortex Lines
		6.4.1 Vortex Lines of Finite Length
		6.4.2 Preliminary Observations on Vortex Core Sizes
		6.4.3 Helical Vortex Lines
	6.5 Helical Vortex Sheets
	6.6 Stream Function Vorticity Formulation
		6.6.1 Nonlinear Actuator Disk Theory
		6.6.2 Application to Wind Turbines
	6.7 Optimum Rotors II
	6.8 Problems
	References
7 Application of Computational Fluid Mechanics
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Pre-processing
	7.3 Solving the Numerical Equations
		7.3.1 Discretization of Differential Equations
		7.3.2 Boundary Conditions
		7.3.3 Numerical Treatment of the Algebraic Equations
	7.4 Post-Processing: Displaying and Checking the Results
	7.5 Turbulence Models for CFD
		7.5.1 Prandtl\'s Mixing Length Model
		7.5.2 One Equation Model
		7.5.3 Spalart–Allmeras Model
		7.5.4 Two Equation Models
		7.5.5 Standard k-ε-Model
		7.5.6 k-ε-Model from Renormalization Group (RNG) Theory
		7.5.7 Boundary Conditions for Turbulent Quantities Close to Walls
		7.5.8 Low-Re-Models
		7.5.9 Menter\'s Shear Stress Transport Model
		7.5.10 Reynolds Stress Models
		7.5.11 Direct Numerical Simulation
		7.5.12 Large and Detached Eddy Simulation
	7.6 Transitional Flow
	7.7 Actuator Disk and Actuator Line Modeling of Wind Turbine Rotors
		7.7.1 Description of the Model and Examples
		7.7.2 Improved Models for Finite Numbers of Blades in BEM Codes
	7.8 Full-Scale CFD Modeling of Wind Turbine Rotors
		7.8.1 NREL Phase VI Turbine
		7.8.2 The Mexico Rotor
		7.8.3 Commercial Wind Turbines
	7.9 Concluding Remarks About Use (and Abuse) of CFD
	7.10 Problems
	References
8 Experiments
	8.1 Measurements of 2D Airfoil Data
		8.1.1 DU00-W-210
		8.1.2 Very Thick Airfoils
	8.2 Measurement of Wind Turbine Power Curves
	8.3 IEAwind Field Rotor Experiments
		8.3.1 The International Energy Agency and IEAwind
		8.3.2 IEAwind Annex XIV and XVIII
		8.3.3 Angle of Attack in 3D Configuration
	8.4 FFA/CARDC Wind Tunnel Experiments
	8.5 NREL NASA-Ames Wind Tunnel Experiment
	8.6 MEXICO, New MEXICO, and MexNext
		8.6.1 The 2006 Experiment
		8.6.2 The 2014 Experiment
		8.6.3 Using the Data: MexNext
		8.6.4 Wind Turbines in Yaw
	8.7 Experiments in the Boundary Layer
		8.7.1 Introductory Remarks
		8.7.2 Laminar Parts on the Wind Turbine Blades
		8.7.3 The DAN-AERO MW Experiments
		8.7.4 Hot Film Measurements
	8.8 Summary of Experiments in Wind Turbine Aerodynamics
	8.9 Problems
	References
9 Impact of Aerodynamics on Blade Design
	9.1 The Task of Blade Design
	9.2 Airfoils for Wind Turbine Blades
	9.3 Aerodynamic Devices
		9.3.1 Vortex Generators
		9.3.2 Gurney Flaps
	9.4 Structural Design and Manufacturing
		9.4.1 Structural Design
		9.4.2 Manufacturing
	9.5 Examples of Modern Blade Shapes
	9.6 Problems
	References
10 Concluding Remarks on Further Developments
	10.1 State of the Art
	10.2 Upscaling
	10.3 Outlook
	References
Appendix  Solutions
A.1 Solutions for Problems of Sect.1.2摥映數爠eflinkpr:chsps11.21
A.2 Solutions for Problems of Sect. 2.10摥映數爠eflinkpr:chsps22.102
A.3 Solutions for Problems of Sect. 3.11摥映數爠eflinkpr:chsps33.113
A.4 Solutions for Problems of Sect. 4.7摥映數爠eflinkpr:chsps44.74
A.5 Solutions for Problems of Sect. 5.7摥映數爠eflinkpr:chsps55.75
A.6 Solutions for Problems of Sect. 6.8摥映數爠eflinkpr:chsps66.86
A.7 Solutions for Problems of Sect. 7.10摥映數爠eflinkpr:chsps77.107
A.8 Solutions for Problems of Sect. 8.9摥映數爠eflinkpr:chsps88.98
A.9 Solutions for Problems of Sect. 9.6摥映數爠eflinkpr:chsps99.69
Appendix  About the Author
Appendix  Glossary
Index