Introduction to Texture Analysis: Macrotexture, Microtexture, and Orientation Mapping

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
About the Authors
PART I: Fundamental Issues
	Chapter 1: Introduction
		1.1. The Classical Approach to Texture
		1.2. The Modern Approach to Texture: Microtexture
			1.2.1. Applications of Microtexture
			1.2.2. Electron Backscatter Diffraction
			1.2.3. Orientation Microscopy and Orientation Mapping
		1.3. A Guide to the Book
	Chapter 2: Descriptors of Orientation
		2.1. Introduction
		2.2. Crystal Structures and Crystal Symmetries
		2.3. Transformation between Coordinate Systems: The Rotation Matrix
			2.3.1. Coordinate Systems
			2.3.2. The Rotation (Orientation) Matrix
			2.3.3. Crystallographically Related Solutions
		2.4. The "Ideal Orientation" (Miller or Miller-Bravais Indices) Notation
		2.5. The Reference Sphere, Pole Figure, and Inverse Pole Figure
			2.5.1. The Pole Figure
			2.5.2. The Inverse Pole Figure
		2.6. The Euler Angles and Euler Space
			2.6.1. The Euler Angles
			2.6.2. The Euler Space
		2.7. The Angle/Axis of Rotation and Cylindrical Angle/Axis Space
			2.7.1. Angle/Axis of Rotation
			2.7.2. Angle/Axis Description of Misorientation
			2.7.3. The Cylindrical Angle/Axis Space
		2.8. The Rodrigues Vector and Rodrigues Space
			2.8.1. The Rodrigues Vector
			2.8.2. The Fundamental Zone
			2.8.3. Properties of Rodrigues Space
		2.9. Quaternions
		2.10. Summation
	Chapter 3: Application of Diffraction to Texture Analysis
		3.1. Introduction
		3.2. Diffraction of Radiation and Bragg's Law
		3.3. Structure Factor
		3.4. Laue and Debye-Scherrer Methods
		3.5. Absorption and Depth of Penetration
		3.6. Characteristics of Radiations Used for Texture Analysis
			3.6.1. X-Rays
			3.6.2. Neutrons
			3.6.3. Electrons
		3.7. Summation
PART II: Macrotexture Analysis
	Chapter 4: Macrotexture Measurements
		4.1. Introduction
		4.2. Principle of Pole Figure Measurement
		4.3. X-Ray Diffraction Methods
			4.3.1. Generation of X-Rays
			4.3.2. Pole Figure Diffractometry in the Texture Goniometer
			4.3.3. Principles of Pole Figure Scanning
			4.3.4. X-Ray Detectors
			4.3.5. Energy-Dispersive Diffractometry
			4.3.6. Correction and Normalization of Pole Figure Data
			4.3.7. Inverse Pole Figures
		4.4. Neutron Diffraction Methods
			4.4.1. Pole Figure Measurement by Neutron Diffraction
			4.4.2. Time-of-Flight Measurements
		4.5. Texture Measurements in Low-Symmetry and Multiphase Materials
			4.5.1. Peak Separation
			4.5.2. Multiphase Materials
		4.6. Sample Preparation
		4.7. Summation
	Chapter 5: Evaluation and Representation of Macrotexture Data
		5.1. Introduction
		5.2. Pole Figure and Inverse Pole Figure
			5.2.1. Normalization and Contouring of Pole Figures
			5.2.2. Representation of Orientations in the Inverse Pole Figure
		5.3. Determination of the Orientation Distribution Function from Pole Figure Data
			5.3.1. The Orientation Distribution Function
			5.3.2. The Series Expansion Method
			5.3.3. Truncation Error and Ghost Correction
			5.3.4. Direct Methods
			5.3.5. Comparison of Series Expansion and Direct Methods
			5.3.6. Texture Parameters
		5.4. Representation and Display of Texture in Euler Space
			5.4.1. Properties of Euler Space
			5.4.2. Representation and Display of Textures
		5.5. Examples of Typical Textures in Metals
			5.5.1. Deformation Textures of fcc Metals
			5.5.2. Deformation Textures of bcc Metals
			5.5.3. Deformation Textures of Hexagonal Metals
			5.5.4. Recrystallization Textures of fcc Metals
			5.5.5. Recrystallization Textures of bcc Metals
			5.5.6. Recrystallization Textures of Hexagonal Metals
		5.6. Summation
PART III: Microtexture Analysis
	Chapter 6: Diffraction Techniques in TEM and SEM
		6.1. Introduction
			6.1.1. Description of Bragg Diffraction in Reciprocal Space
			6.1.2. Forms of Electron Diffraction—Overview
		6.2. Diffraction in TEM
			6.2.1. Selected Area Diffraction Patterns (SADP) and Ewald Construction
			6.2.2. Debye–Scherrer Ring Patterns (DSP)
			6.2.3. Convergent Beam Electron Diffraction Patterns (CBEDP)
			6.2.4. Spot Diffraction with Electron Beam Precession (Precession Electron Diffraction, PED)
			6.2.5. Conical Scanning
			6.2.6. Transmission Kikuchi Diffraction Patterns (TKP)
		6.3. Diffraction in SEM
			6.3.1. Backscatter Kikuchi Patterns (BKP) or Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD) Patterns
			6.3.2. Physics of Backscatter Kikuchi Pattern Formation—Dynamical Theory of Electron Diffraction
			6.3.3. Physical Spatial Resolution of EBSD
			6.3.4. Electron Channeling Techniques
			6.3.5. Micro-Kossel Technique
		6.4. Summation
		Note
	Chapter 7: Procedures for Orientation Determination from Electron Diffraction Patterns
		7.1. Introduction
			7.1.1. Coordinate Systems
			7.1.2. Calculation of the Reciprocal Lattice
		7.2. Extraction of Lattice Plane (Reflector) Positions from Diffraction Patterns
			7.2.1. Manual Determination of Diffraction Plane Vectors
			7.2.2. Automatic Kikuchi Pattern Analysis: The Hough Transform for EBSD Pattern Analysis
			7.2.3. The Hough Transform for TKP
			7.2.4. Extraction of Diffraction Vectors from Spot Patterns
		7.3. Indexing and Orientation Calculation
			7.3.1. Serial Indexing
			7.3.2. Parallel Indexing
		7.4. Pattern Matching and Dictionary Indexing
			7.4.1. Introduction
			7.4.2. Template Matching for Spot Pattern Indexing in TEM
			7.4.3. Dictionary Indexing for EBSD Pattern Analysis
			7.4.4. Pseudo-Symmetries
			7.4.5. Cross-Correlation EBSD for the Measurement of Elastic Strain Fields
		7.5. Summation
		Note
	Chapter 8: Practice of Orientation Measurement and Orientation Microscopy
		8.1. Introduction
		8.2. EBSD-Based Orientation Microscopy in the SEM
			8.2.1. Specimen Requirements
			8.2.2. EBSD Specimen Preparation
			8.2.3. Microscope Parameters
			8.2.4. Specimen/Microscope Geometry
			8.2.5. EBSD Detector
			8.2.6. Diffraction Pattern Enhancement
			8.2.7. Software
			8.2.8. Calibration of an EBSD System
			8.2.9. Lateral Resolution
			8.2.10. Angular Resolution
			8.2.11. In-Situ Investigations of Texture Formation Processes by EBSD
		8.3. Techniques of TEM Orientation Microscopy
			8.3.1. Technical Aspects of TEM-Based Orientation Microscopy
			8.3.2. Calibration of Patterns
			8.3.3. Camera Considerations
			8.3.4. Sample Preparation
			8.3.5. Spatial and Angular Resolution
		8.4. Summation
	Chapter 9: Orientation Microscopy and Orientation Mapping
		9.1. Introduction
		9.2. Historical Evolution of Orientation Microscopy in SEM and TEM
		9.3. EBSD-Based Orientation Microscopy
			9.3.1. Measurement Strategies
			9.3.2. Data Storage
		9.4. Orientation Mapping and its Applications
			9.4.1. Spatial Distribution of Microtexture Components
			9.4.2. True Grain Size/Shape Distributions
			9.4.3. Phase Maps
			9.4.4. Deformation Maps
			9.4.5. Quantification of Plastic Strain Fields by Cross-Correlation EBSD
			9.4.6. Cross-Correlation EBSD for the Measurement of Elastic Strain Fields
			9.4.7. Measurement of the Macroscopic Crystallographic Texture
			9.4.8. Analysis of Data Using MTex
		9.5. Orientation Microscopy in the TEM
			9.5.1. Semi-Automatic TEM ORM
			9.5.2. STEM Techniques
		9.6. When Using TEM- or SEM-ORM Techniques?
			9.6.1. Orientation Microscopy on Highly Deformed Metals
			9.6.2. Other Cases Requiring High Spatial Resolution
			9.6.3. Cases Requiring High Angular Resolution or Precision of Structure Analysis
		9.7. Summation
	Chapter 10: Evaluation and Representation of Microtexture Data
		10.1. Introduction
			10.1.1. Statistical Distribution of Orientation and Misorientation Data
			10.1.2. Orientation and Misorientation Data Related to the Microstructure
		10.2. Representation of Orientations in a Pole Figure or Inverse Pole Figure
			10.2.1. Individual Orientations
			10.2.2. Density Distributions
		10.3. Representation of Orientations in Euler Space
			10.3.1. Individual Orientations
			10.3.2. Continuous Distributions
			10.3.3. Statistical Relevance of Single-Grain Orientation Measurements
		10.4. Representation of Orientations in Rodrigues Space
		10.5. General Representation of Misorientation Data
			10.5.1. Representations Based on the Angle/Axis Descriptor
			10.5.2. Intragrain Misorientations
		10.6. Representation of Misorientations in Three-Dimensional Spaces
			10.6.1. Representation of Misorientations in Euler Space
			10.6.2. Representation of Misorientations in the Cylindrical Angle/Axis Space
			10.6.3. Representation of Misorientations in Rodrigues Space
		10.7. Normalization and Evaluation of the Misorientation Distribution Function
		10.8. Use of Orientation Data for Ensuing Microstructure Modeling
		10.9. Summation
	Chapter 11: Crystallographic Analysis of Interfaces, Surfaces, and Connectivity
		11.1. Introduction
		11.2. Description of Grain Boundaries
			11.2.1. Characterization of the Grain Boundary Structure
			11.2.2. Small- and Large-Angle Grain Boundaries
			11.2.3. Distinction of Grain Boundaries by the CSL Model
			11.2.4. Refining the CSL Model: The DSC Model
			11.2.5. Generalization of CSL Lattices: The O-Lattice Theory
			11.2.6. The Importance of the Boundary Plane
			11.2.7. Five-Parameter Grain Boundary Description
		11.3. Crystallographic Analysis of Grain Boundaries and Surfaces
			11.3.1. Stereo-Photogrammetry for Observation of Free Surfaces
			11.3.2. Sectioning Technique Principles
			11.3.3. Stereological Analysis
		11.4. Three-Dimensional EBSD Orientation Measurements
			11.4.1. 3D EBSD Techniques
			11.4.2. 3D EBSD Data Processing
			11.4.3. Large Volume 3D EBSD Techniques
		11.5. Orientation Connectivity and Spatial Distribution
		11.6. Summation
	Chapter 12: Orientation Relationships between Phases and Texture Formation during Phase Transformations
		12.1. Introduction
		12.2. Orientation Relationships between Different Phases
			12.2.1. Introduction to Orientation Relationships between Different Phases
			12.2.2. Orientation Relationships in Steels
			12.2.3. Orientation Relationships in Other Materials
		12.3. Texture Formation, Variant Selection, Reconstruction of Texture and Microstructure of Austenite
		12.4. Summation
	Chapter 13: Synchrotron Radiation, Nondiffraction Techniques, and Comparisons between Methods
		13.1. Introduction
		13.2. Texture Analysis by Synchrotron Radiation
			13.2.1. Individual Orientations from Laue Patterns
			13.2.2. Local Textures from Debye-Scherrer Patterns in Polycrystalline Regions
		13.3. Texture Analysis by Nondiffraction Techniques
			13.3.1. Ultrasonic Velocity
			13.3.2. Optical Methods
		13.4. Summation: Comparison and Assessment of the Experimental Methods for Texture Analysis
			13.4.1. Comparison of Different Techniques and Their Fields of Application
			13.4.2. Overview on the Evolution of EBSD Applications in Literature
Addendum: Spherical Indexing of EBSD Patterns
Appendix I: Miller and Miller–Bravais Indices
Appendix II: Crystallographically Related Operations
Appendix III: Crystallographically Related Solutions for the Four S-texture Variants
Appendix IV: Spherical Projection and the Stereographic, Equal-Area, and Gnomonic Projections
Appendix V: Indexing a Pole Figure
Appendix VI: X-ray Counters and Pulse Height Analysis
Glossary of Terms
References
General Bibliography
Index