Introduction to satellite remote sensing : atmosphere, ocean and land applications

Front Cover
Introduction to Satellite Remote Sensing
Copyright
Dedication
Contents
1 . The History of Satellite Remote Sensing
	1.1 The Definition of Remote Sensing
	1.2 The History of Satellite Remote Sensing
		1.2.1 The Nature of Light and the Development of Aerial Photography
		1.2.2 The Birth of Earth-Orbiting Satellites
		1.2.3 The Future of Polar-Orbiting Satellites
			1.2.3.1 The Cross-Track Infrared Sounder
		1.2.4 Other Historical Satellite Programs
			1.2.4.1 The NIMBUS Program
			1.2.4.2 The Landsat Program
			1.2.4.3 The Defense Meteorological Satellite Program
			1.2.4.4 Geostationary Weather Satellites
				1.2.4.4.1 GOES-R
	1.3 Study Questions
2 . Basic Electromagnetic Concepts and Applications to Optical Sensors
	2.1 Maxwell's Equations
	2.2 The Basics of Electromagnetic Radiation
	2.3 The Remote Sensing Process
	2.4 The Character of Electromagnetic Waves
		2.4.1 Definition of Radiometric Terms
		2.4.2 Polarization and the Stokes Vector
		2.4.3 Reflection and Refraction at the Interface of Two Flat Media
		2.4.4 Brewster's Angle
		2.4.5 Critical Angle
		2.4.6 Albedo Versus Reflectance
	2.5 Electromagnetic Spectrum: Distribution of Radiant Energies
		2.5.1 Gamma, X-Ray, and Ultraviolet Portions of the Electromagnetic Spectrum
		2.5.2 Visible Spectrum
		2.5.3 Thermal Infrared Spectrum
		2.5.4 Microwave Spectrum
	2.6 Atmospheric Transmission
		2.6.1 Spectral Windows
		2.6.2 Atmospheric Effects
			2.6.2.1 Beer–Lambert Absorption Law
			2.6.2.2 Beer–Lambert Absorption Law: Opacity
			2.6.2.3 Atmospheric Scattering
	2.7 Sensors to Measure Parameters of the Earth's Surface
	2.8 Incoming Solar Radiation
	2.9 Infrared Emissions
	2.10 Surface Reflectance: Land Targets
		2.10.1 Land Surface Mixtures
	2.11 Study Questions
3 - Optical Imaging Systems
	3.1 Physical Measurement Principles
	3.2 Basic Optical Systems
		3.2.1 Prisms
		3.2.2 Filter-Wheel Radiometers
			3.2.2.1 An Example: The Cloud Absorption Radiometer
			3.2.2.2 Filters
		3.2.3 Grating Spectrometer
		3.2.4 Interferometer
	3.3 Spectral Resolving Power; the Rayleigh Criterion
	3.4 Detecting the Signal
	3.5 Vignetting
	3.6 Scan Geometries
	3.7 Field of View
	3.8 Optical Sensor Calibration
		3.8.1 Visible Wavelengths Calibration
		3.8.2 Polarization Filters
	3.9 Light Detection and Ranging
		3.9.1 Physics of the Measurement
		3.9.2 Optical and Technological Considerations
		3.9.3 Applications of LIDAR Systems
		3.9.4 Wind LIDAR
			3.9.4.1 Vector Wind Velocity Determination
				3.9.4.1.1 Velocity Azimuth Display LIDAR Vector Wind Method
				3.9.4.1.2 Doppler Beam Swinging LIDAR Vector Wind Method
			3.9.4.2 Direct Detection Doppler Wind LIDAR
			3.9.4.3 LIDAR Wind Summary
	3.10 Study Questions
4 - Microwave Radiometry
	4.1 Basic Concepts on Microwave Radiometry
		4.1.1 Blackbody Radiation
		4.1.2 Gray-body Radiation: Brightness Temperature and Emissivity
		4.1.3 General Expressions for the Emissivity
			4.1.3.1 Simple Emissivity Models: Emission From a Perfect Specular Surface
			4.1.3.2 Simple Emissivity Models: Emission From a Lambertian Surface
		4.1.4 Power Collected by an Antenna Surrounded by a Blackbody
		4.1.5 Power Collected by an Antenna Surrounded by a Gray body: Apparent Temperature and Antenna Temperature
	4.2 The Radiative Transfer Equation
		4.2.1 The Complete Polarimetric Radiative Transfer Equation
		4.2.2 Usual Approximations to the Radiative Transfer Equation
	4.3 Emission Behavior of Natural Surfaces
		4.3.1 The Atmosphere
			4.3.1.1 Attenuation by Atmospheric Gases
			4.3.1.2 Attenuation by Rain
			4.3.1.3 Attenuation by Clouds and Fog
		4.3.2 The Ionosphere
			4.3.2.1 Faraday Rotation
			4.3.2.2 Ionospheric Losses: Absorption and Emission
		4.3.3 Land Emission
			4.3.3.1 Soil Dielectric Constant Models
			4.3.3.2 Bare Soil Emission
			4.3.3.3 Vegetated Soil Emission
			4.3.3.4 Snow-Covered Soil Emission
			4.3.3.5 Topography Effects
		4.3.4 Ocean Emission
			4.3.4.1 Water Dielectric Constant Behavior
			4.3.4.2 Calm Ocean Emission
				4.3.4.2.1 Influence of the Salinity
				4.3.4.2.2 Influence of Frequency
				4.3.4.2.3 Influence of the Water Temperature
			4.3.4.3 Influence of the Sea State
				4.3.4.3.1 Influence of the Look Angle
			4.3.4.4 Emissivity of the Sea Surface Covered With Oil
			4.3.4.5 Emissivity of the Sea Ice Surface
	4.4 Understanding Microwave Radiometry Imagery
	4.5 Applications of Microwave Radiometry
	4.6 Sensors
		4.6.1 Historical Review of Microwave Radiometers and Frequency Bands Used
		4.6.2 Microwave Radiometers: Basic Performance
			4.6.2.1 Spatial Resolution
				4.6.2.1.1 Real Aperture Radiometers
				4.6.2.1.2 Synthetic Aperture Radiometers
			4.6.2.2 Radiometric Resolution
				4.6.2.2.1 Real Aperture Radiometers
				4.6.2.2.2 Synthetic Aperture Radiometers
			4.6.2.3 Trade-off Between Spatial Resolution and Radiometric Precision
		4.6.3 Real Aperture Radiometers
			4.6.3.1 Instrument Considerations
				4.6.3.1.1 Antenna Considerations
				4.6.3.1.2 Receiver Considerations
				4.6.3.1.3 Sampling Considerations
			4.6.3.2 Types of Real Aperture Radiometers
			4.6.3.3 Radiometer Calibration
				4.6.3.3.1 External Calibration
					4.6.3.3.1.1 Using Hot and Cold Targets
					4.6.3.3.1.2 Fully Polarimetric Radiometer Calibration Using External Targets
					4.6.3.3.1.3 Tip Curves
					4.6.3.3.1.4 Earth Targets: Vicarious Calibration
				4.6.3.3.2 Internal Calibration
				4.6.3.3.3 Radiometer Linearity
			4.6.3.4 Radio Frequency Interference Detection and Mitigation
			4.6.3.5 Example: Special Sensor Microwave Imager Radiometric and Geometric Corrections
		4.6.4 Synthetic Aperture Radiometers
			4.6.4.1 Types of Synthetic Aperture Radiometers
				4.6.4.1.1 Mills Cross
				4.6.4.1.2 Synthetic Aperture Radiometers using Matched Filtering
				4.6.4.1.3 Synthetic Aperture Radiometers using Fourier Synthesis
					4.6.4.1.3.1 1D Synthetic Aperture Radiometers: Array Thinning
					4.6.4.1.3.2 2D Synthetic Aperture Radiometers: Array Topologies
					4.6.4.1.3.3 Other Synthetic Aperture Radiometer Concepts
			4.6.4.2 Radiometer Calibration
				4.6.4.2.1 Internal Calibration
				4.6.4.2.2 External Calibration
			4.6.4.3 Image Reconstruction
			4.6.4.4 ESA's SMOS Mission and the MIRAS Instrument
		4.6.5 Future Trends in Microwave Radiometers
	4.7 Study Questions
5 - Radar
	5.1 A Compact Introduction to Radar Theory
		5.1.1 Remote Ranging
		5.1.2 Doppler Analysis
	5.2 Radar Scattering
		5.2.1 Radar Frequency Bands
		5.2.2 Normalizations of the Radar Reflectivity
		5.2.3 Point Versus Distributed Scatterers
		5.2.4 Speckle, Multilook, and Radiometric Resolution
		5.2.5 Radar Equation
		5.2.6 Radar Waves at an Interface
		5.2.7 Multiple Reflections: Double Bounce, Triple Bounce, and Urban Areas
		5.2.8 Backscattering of Surfaces
		5.2.9 Periodic Scattering: The Bragg Model
		5.2.10 Backscattering of Volumes
		5.2.11 Overall Summary of Radar Backscatter
		5.2.12 Depolarization of Radar Waves
	5.3 Radar Systems
		5.3.1 Range-Doppler Radars
		5.3.2 Optimal Receiver for a Single Echo: The Matched Filter
		5.3.3 Matched Filter Versus Inverse Filter
		5.3.4 Optimal Receiver for Range-Doppler Radar Echoes: The Backprojection Operator
		5.3.5 Radar Waveforms
		5.3.6 A Paradigmatic Example: Linear Frequency Modulated Pulses (Chirps)
		5.3.7 Geometrical Dialectics of Remote Sensing Radars
		5.3.8 Profiler Versus Imaging Radars
		5.3.9 Nadir-Looking Versus Side-Looking Radars
		5.3.10 Distortions of the Radar Side-Looking Geometry
		5.3.11 Flat Earth Versus Curved Surface
		5.3.12 Ground Velocity
		5.3.13 Local Versus Global Coordinate Systems
		5.3.14 The Radar Coordinates
		5.3.15 Geocoding
		5.3.16 Real Versus Synthetic Aperture
		5.3.17 The Radar as a Communications System
			5.3.17.1 Block Diagram
			5.3.17.2 Radar Transmitter
			5.3.17.3 Radar Receiver
			5.3.17.4 Central Electronics
			5.3.17.5 Radar Antennas
			5.3.17.6 Electromagnetic Radiation
			5.3.17.7 Polarization of Antennas
			5.3.17.8 Characterization of Antennas
			5.3.17.9 Antenna Basics
			5.3.17.10 Propagation of Radar Waves
				5.3.17.10.1 Propagation Through the Troposphere
				5.3.17.10.2 Propagation Through the Ionosphere
				5.3.17.10.3 Delays, Phase Offsets, and Depolarization Caused by Inhomogeneity
	5.4 Synthetic Aperture Radar
		5.4.1 A Compact Introduction to Synthetic Aperture Radar Theory
			5.4.1.1 Range and Azimuth Resolutions
			5.4.1.2 Ambiguities and Doppler Centroid
			5.4.1.3 An Important Synthetic Aperture Radar Choice: Swath Versus Azimuth Resolution
			5.4.1.4 Synthetic Aperture Radar Imaging Modes
				5.4.1.4.1 High Azimuth Resolution Modes: Spotlight
				5.4.1.4.2 Wide-Swath Modes: ScanSAR and TOPS
				5.4.1.4.3 Circular Synthetic Aperture Radar
				5.4.1.4.4 Synthetic Aperture Radar Image Calibration
		5.4.2 Synthetic Aperture Radar Systems and Missions
		5.4.3 Fundamentals of Synthetic Aperture Radar Processing
			5.4.3.1 Exact Synthetic Aperture Radar Image Formation: The Backprojection Integral
			5.4.3.2 Spectral Properties of Synthetic Aperture Radar Images
			5.4.3.3 Synthetic Aperture Radar Transfer Function
			5.4.3.4 Efficient Synthetic Aperture Radar Image Formation
			5.4.3.5 Monochromatic Synthetic Aperture Radar Image Formation
			5.4.3.6 Polychromatic Synthetic Aperture Radar Image Formation
			5.4.3.7 The Range-Migration Algorithm
			5.4.3.8 Fast-Factorized Backprojection
	5.5 Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry
		5.5.1 Geometrical Models
		5.5.2 Coherence, Effective Number of Looks, and Decorrelation Sources
		5.5.3 Interferometric Processing
		5.5.4 Differential Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry
		5.5.5 Synthetic Aperture Radar Tomography
	5.6 Future Synthetic Aperture Radar Systems
		5.6.1 High-Orbit (Medium Earth/Geosynchronous) Synthetic Aperture Radar
		5.6.2 Multichannel Synthetic Aperture Radar Systems
		5.6.3 Onboard Processing for Data Reduction in Earth and Planetary Synthetic Aperture Radar Missions
		5.6.4 Bistatic and Multistatic Synthetic Aperture Radar Constellations
	5.7 Radar Altimeters
		5.7.1 Geometrical Models
		5.7.2 Illuminated Area and Echo Signal Power
		5.7.3 Radar Altimetry Over the Ocean
		5.7.4 Error Correction and Calibration
	5.8 Radar Scatterometry for Ocean Wind Vector Observations
		5.8.1 Brief History of Scatterometry
		5.8.2 Scatterometer Antenna Technology
		5.8.3 SeaWinds a Scatterometer Example
		5.8.4 Scatterometer Limitations
		5.8.5 Examples of Scatterometer Measurements
	5.9 Study Questions
6 - Remote Sensing Using Global Navigation Satellite System Signals of Opportunity
	6.1 Brief Historical Review
	6.2 Fundamentals of Global Navigation Satellite System Signals
	6.3 Global Navigation Satellite System—Radio Occultations
		6.3.1 Basic Principles
		6.3.2 GNSS-RO Instruments
		6.3.3 GNSS-RO Applications
			6.3.3.1 Atmospheric Profiles of Temperature, Pressure, and Water Vapor
			6.3.3.2 Numerical Weather Forecast Contributions
			6.3.3.3 Ionosphere
	6.4 Global Navigation Satellite System-Reflectrometry
		6.4.1 Basic Principles: GNSS-R as a Multistatic Radar
			6.4.1.1 Isodelay and Iso-Doppler Contours
			6.4.1.2 Received Power, Signal-to-Noise Ratios, and Ovals of Cassini
			6.4.1.3 Considerations on Bistatic Scattering
			6.4.1.4 Woodward Ambiguity Function
		6.4.2 GNSS-R Particularities
			6.4.2.1 The Woodward Ambiguity Function
			6.4.2.2 The Bistatic Scattering Coefficient
				6.4.2.2.1 Kirchhoff Model Under the Stationary Phase Approximation
				6.4.2.2.2 Kirchhoff Model Under the Physical Optics Approximation
				6.4.2.2.3 The Small Perturbation Method
				6.4.2.2.4 The Two-Scale Model
				6.4.2.2.5 The Integral Equation Model
				6.4.2.2.6 The Small Slope Approximation
		6.4.3 Thermal Noise, Speckle, and Coherence Time
			6.4.3.1 Simplified Approach
			6.4.3.2 Realistic Approach
		6.4.4 GNSS-R Instruments
			6.4.4.1 Observables
			6.4.4.2 Techniques
			6.4.4.3 Hardware Considerations
				6.4.4.3.1 Operating Frequencies and Bandwidths
				6.4.4.3.2 Gain Pattern and Polarization
				6.4.4.3.3 Multipath Mitigation and Interference Suppression
				6.4.4.3.4 Phase Center Stability
			6.4.4.4 Past, Present, and Future of GNSS-R Instruments
		6.4.5 Applications
			6.4.5.1 Ocean Winds
				6.4.5.1.1 Parameter Estimation
				6.4.5.1.2 Interferometric Complex Field
				6.4.5.1.3 Identification of Waveform/Delay Doppler Map Features
				6.4.5.1.4 Delay-Doppler Map Deconvolution
			6.4.5.2 Altimetry
				6.4.5.2.1 Phase Altimetry
			6.4.5.3 Soil Moisture
				6.4.5.3.1 Techniques Based on the “Interference Pattern”
				6.4.5.3.2 Techniques based on “scatterometry”
			6.4.5.4 Vegetation Parameters
				6.4.5.4.1 Techniques based on the “interference pattern”
				6.4.5.4.2 Techniques based on “scatterometry”
			6.4.5.5 Cryospheric Applications
				6.4.5.5.1 Sea Ice Thickness
				6.4.5.5.2 Sea Ice Permittivity
				6.4.5.5.3 Snow Depth
				6.4.5.5.4 Dry Snow Substructure
	6.5 Future Trends in GNSS-R
	6.6 Study Questions
7 - Orbital Mechanics, Image Navigation, and Cartographic Projections
	7.1 History
	7.2 Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion
		7.2.1 Kepler's First Law
		7.2.2 Kepler's Second Law
		7.2.3 Kepler's Third Law
		7.2.4 The Two-Body Problem
		7.2.5 Low Earth Orbits
		7.2.6 Geostationary Orbits
			7.2.6.1 US Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites
		7.2.7 Highly Elliptical Orbits
	7.3 Map Projections, Image Navigation, and Georectification
		7.3.1 Mathematical Modeling of the Earth's Surface
		7.3.2 Image Georeferencing
		7.3.2.1 The Advanced Very High-Resolution Radiometer as an Example: Geometric Corrections
		7.3.3 Advanced Very High-Resolution Radiometer Accurate Autogeoregistration Using Image Calculated Attitude Parameters
	7.4 Map Projections
	7.5 Study Questions
8 . Atmosphere Applications
	8.1 Cloud Remote Sensing
		8.1.1 Cloud Top Temperature
		8.1.2 Cloud Shape and Cloud Type
		8.1.3 Remote Sensing of Clouds and Cloud Properties
	8.2 Atmospheric Aerosols and Optical Thickness
		8.2.1 Aerosol Optical Thickness
			8.2.1.1 MODIS Cloud Optical Thickness
		8.2.2 Ground Validation of Satellite Observed Optical Thickness
			8.2.2.1 The Beer–Lambert Law
			8.2.2.2 The AERONET
	8.3 Atmospheric Profiling
		8.3.1 Radiosondes, Rawinsondes, and Dropsondes
		8.3.2 Satellite Remote Sensing Atmospheric Profiling
			8.3.2.1 The TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder
			8.3.2.2 The Advanced TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder
				8.3.2.2.1 Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit-A
			8.3.2.3 The Visible Infrared Spin-Scan Radiometer Atmospheric Sounder
			8.3.2.4 Atmospheric Infrared Sounder
	8.4 Rain Rate, Atmospheric Liquid Water, and Cloud Liquid Water
		8.4.1 Rain Rate Estimation Using Microwave Radiometry
			8.4.1.1 Precipitation Detection Over Ground Surfaces
			8.4.1.2 Precipitation Detection Over the Ocean
		8.4.2 Rain Rate Estimation Using Radar
	8.5 Study Questions
9 - Ocean Applications
	9.1 Sea Surface Temperature
		9.1.1 Infrared Sensing of Sea Surface Temperature
		9.1.2 The Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer
		9.1.3 Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer Pathfinder Sea Surface Temperature
		9.1.4 Passive Microwave Sea Surface Temperature
		9.1.5 Merging Infrared and Passive Microwave Sea Surface Temperatures
	9.2 Sea Surface Height and Satellite Altimetry
		9.2.1 Radar Altimeters
		9.2.2 History of Satellite Altimeters
		9.2.3 Principle of Operation
		9.2.4 Altimeter Error Corrections
		9.2.5 Altimeter Waveforms and Backscatter
		9.2.6 Altimeter Data Merging
		9.2.7 Synthetic Aperture Radar Altimetry
		9.2.8 Altimetry Applications
			9.2.8.1 Mapping Geostrophic Ocean Surface Currents
			9.2.8.2 Mapping Mesoscale Ocean Dynamics With Satellite Altimetry
				9.2.8.2.1 Multimission Mapping Capabilities
			9.2.8.3 Application of Satellite Altimetry to Sea Level Rise
			9.2.8.4 Estimating Ocean Bathymetry With Altimeter Data
	9.3 Synthetic Aperture Radar Ocean Applications
		9.3.1 Measuring and Mapping Ocean Winds From Synthetic Aperture Radar
		9.3.2 Directional Wave Number Spectra From Synthetic Aperture Radar Imagery
	9.4 Ocean Wind Scatterometry
		9.4.1 Mapping the Ocean Wind Vector
		9.4.2 Sea Surface Salinity
		9.4.3 Bathymetry and Benthic Habitats Mapping in Shallow Waters
		9.4.4 Sargassum Saga: Spotting Seaweed From Space
	9.5 Conclusions
	9.6 Study Questions
10 . Land Applications
	10.1 Historical Development
	10.2 Landsat Applications
		10.2.1 Monitoring Deforestation
		10.2.2 Mapping Floods and FloodPlains
		10.2.3 Carbon Storage
		10.2.4 Drought Monitoring and Its Impact in Forest Decline and Fires Occurrence
		10.2.5 Analyzing Landsat to Mitigate Bird/Aircraft Collisions
		10.2.6 Landsat Adds Tremendous Value to Decision Making
	10.3 Land Cover Mapping
	10.4 Commercial High-Resolution Optical Imagery
		10.4.1 Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre
		10.4.2 DigitalGlobe Inc.
			10.4.2.1 Applications of High-Resolution Satellite Imagery
				10.4.2.1.1 DigitalGlobe Imagery Use for Changchun Urban Planning Initiative
				10.4.2.1.2 DigitalGlobe Satellite Imagery Helps Agricultural Development in the Philippines
				10.4.2.1.3 City of Solvang, California
				10.4.2.1.4 Using DigitalGlobe Imagery for Planning Moscow's Green Space
				10.4.2.1.5 Satellite Imagery Vital to Proactive Forestry Management
	10.5 Forest Fire Detection and Mapping
		10.5.1 MODIS Fire Products
		10.5.2 MODIS Active Fire Detection
		10.5.3 MODIS Fire Validation
		10.5.4 The Hayman Wildfire in Colorado
	10.6 Measuring and Monitoring Vegetation From Space
		10.6.1 The AVHRR NDVI 8-km Dataset
		10.6.2 Using NDVI to Identify and Monitor Corn Growth in Western Mexico
		10.6.3 Microwave Remote Sensing of Vegetation and Soil Moisture
	10.7 The European Copernicus Program
	10.8 Study Questions
11 . Cryosphere Applications
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Polar Observations
		11.2.1 Satellite Laser Altimetry
		11.2.2 Satellite Radar Altimetry
	11.3 Sea Ice
	11.4 Ice Sheets
	11.5 CryoSat Instruments
		11.5.1 CryoSat Orbit
		11.5.2 CryoSat Error Budget
	11.6 Using Scatterometry to Compute Sea Ice Concentration and Drift
	11.7 Thin Ice Thickness Estimation
	11.8 Multiyear Arctic Sea Ice Classification Using OSCAT and QuikSCAT
		11.8.1 Greenland Ice Sheet
		11.8.2 Sea Ice Concentration and Ice Motion
	11.9 Arctic Sea Ice Drift Estimation by Merging Radiometer and Scatterometer Data
	11.10 Merging the Sea Ice Drift Products
	11.11 Study Questions
12 . Remote Sensing With Small Satellites
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Earth Observation Using Constellations of Small Satellites
	12.3 Future Trends in Small Satellites
References
	Further Reading
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	X
	Z
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