Introduction to Geophysics: Global Physical Fields and Processes in the Earth (Springer Textbooks in Earth Sciences, Geography and Environment)

Preface
Contents
About the Author
1 Fundamentals of Geophysics, the Earth in the Universe, Its Material Composition, and Its Internal Structure
	1.1  Introduction
	1.2  What is Geophysics?
		1.2.1  Measurement of Geophysical Fields
		1.2.2  Data Processing
		1.2.3  Data Inversion
		1.2.4  Interpretation
	Box 1.1 International organizations involved in coordinating global geophysical research and selected national geophysical organizations
	1.3  Formula Usage
	Box 1.2 Selected dimensionless characteristic numbers in hydrodynamics and thermodynamics
	1.4  The Earth in the Universe
	Box 1.3 Red Shift and Hubble’s Law
	1.5  Structure of the Earth
	1.6  Exercises
	Selected Textbooks and Reference Literature
2 Radioactive Decay and Rock Ages
	2.1  Isotopes, Radioactivity and Decay Processes
	2.2  Physical Age Dating Methods
		2.2.1  Decay and Accumulation Clocks Based on the Ratio of Parent to Daughter Isotope
			2.2.1.1  Isochron Methods for Simple Decay
			2.2.1.2  Isochron Methods for Branched Decay
			2.2.1.3  Decay Series
		2.2.2  Age Dating Using Cosmic Radionuclides
		2.2.3  Age Dating with Radioactive Disequilibria
		2.2.4  Accumulation Clocks Based on Radiation Damage
		2.2.5  Age Dating Using Annual Stable-Isotope Markers
	2.3  Exercises
	Selected Textbooks and Reference Literature
3 Earthquakes and Earth’s Structure
	3.1  Seismic Waves and Their Interactions with Earth’s Matter and Internal Interfaces
		3.1.1  Waves in Daily Life
		3.1.2  Elasticity
		3.1.3  Elastic Waves
		3.1.4  Energy and Energy Density of Seismic Waves
		3.1.5  Attenuation of Seismic Waves
		3.1.6  Reflection and Refraction of Seismic Waves at Interfaces
		3.1.7  Seismometers
	3.2  Propagation of Earthquake Waves
		3.2.1  Inversion of Traveltime Curves to Determine the Radial Velocity Distribution in the Earth
		3.2.2  Determination of the Boundaries within the Earth from the Characteristic Response (or Receiver) Function of Seismic Stations
		3.2.3  Seismic Tomography for Mapping of Earth’s Internal Structure
		3.2.4  Determination of Earthquake Epicenter Distance
		3.2.5  Hypocenter Mechanism of Earthquakes and Their Geodynamic Interpretation
		3.2.6  Determination of Earthquake Strength
		3.2.7  Monitoring of the International Nuclear Weapons Ban Treaty
	3.3  Free Oscillations of Earth and Sun
		3.3.1  Spherical Harmonic Analysis
		3.3.2  Free Oscillations of the Earth
		3.3.3  Helioseismology and Astroseismology
			3.3.3.1  Global Helioseismology: Analysis of the Sun’s Natural Oscillations
			3.3.3.2  Local Helioseismology: Traveltime Curves and Ring Diagrams
	3.4  Exercises
	Selected Textbooks and Reference Literature for Further Study
4 Gravity Field and Figure of the Earth
	4.1  Gravity, Rotation, and Tides of the Earth
		4.1.1  Gravitational Potential
		4.1.2  Rotation of the Earth
		4.1.3  Tides
		4.1.4  Changes in the Earth’s rotation and its orbit around the Sun
		4.1.5  Coriolis and Eötvös acceleration
	4.2  Gravity Potential and Geoid
		4.2.1  Solution of the Laplace equation for the gravitational potential and its spherical harmonic representation
		4.2.2  Spherical harmonic expansion of the geoid
	4.3  Gravity Anomalies, Gravity Reductions and Isostasy
		4.3.1  Correction and Reduction of Gravity Measurements
			4.3.1.1  Correction of Variations with Time: Instrumental Drift and Tidal Effects
			4.3.1.2  Dependence of Normal Gravity γ0 on Latitude
			4.3.1.3  Elevation Reductions: Free-air Reduction and Terrain Reduction, δgF and δgT
			4.3.1.4  Bouguer reduction and atmospheric reduction, δgB and δgA
		4.3.2  Global and Regional Gravity Anomalies
		4.3.3  Isostasy and geodynamic aspects
	Box 4.3 Solution of the Laplace Equation in Spherical Coordinates by Separation of Variables
	Box 4.4 Elevation Relative to Different Datums
	Box 4.5 Digital Elevation Models (DEM)
	4.4  Exercises
	Selected Textbooks and Reference Literature
5 Earth\'s Magnetic Field and Magnetosphere
	Box 5.2 Which is the Magnetic Field—B or H?
	5.1  Components and Structure of Earth\'s Magnetic Field
	5.2  Sources of Earth\'s Magnetic Field
		5.2.1  The Geodynamo
		5.2.2  Earth\'s Magnetosphere
		5.2.3  Earth\'s Electric Field
	5.3  Internal and External Sources of Earth\'s Magnetic Field
		5.3.1  Spherical Harmonic Expansion of Earth\'s Magnetic Field
		5.3.2  Current Models of Earth\'s Magnetic Main Field and Magnetic Anomalies
	5.4  Magnetic Properties of Rocks
		5.4.1  Induced Magnetization
		5.4.2  Diamagnetism
		5.4.3  Paramagnetism
		5.4.4  Ferromagnetism and Ferrimagnetism
		5.4.5  Remanent Magnetism
	5.5  Magnetism of Rocks and Minerals
	5.6  Paleomagnetics: Polar Drift and Field Reversal
		5.6.1  Paleomagnetic Methods
		5.6.2  Polar Drift Curves
	5.7  Exercises
	Selected Textbooks and Reference Literature
6 Earth’s Heat and Temperature Field
	Box 6.1 Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier*
	6.1  Heat Transport in the Earth
		6.1.1  Thermodynamic Fundamentals
		6.1.2  Fundamentals of Heat Transport in the Earth
			6.1.2.1  Conservation of Mass
			6.1.2.2  Conservation of Energy
		6.1.3  Earth’s Thermal Structure
	6.2  Earth’s Thermal Energy Balance
		6.2.1  Heat Sources
			6.2.1.1  External Sources
			6.2.1.2  Internal Sources
		6.2.2  Heat Sinks
		6.2.3  Earth’s Heat Balance
	Box 6.2 Equilibrium temperature of the Earth and global greenhouse effect
	6.3  Storage, Production and Transport of Heat Within the Earth
		6.3.1  Heat Storage
			6.3.1.1  Heat capacity
			6.3.1.2  Latent Heat
			6.3.1.3  Volume-related Thermal Capacity
		6.3.2  Radiogenic Heat Production Rate
		6.3.3  Heat Conduction and Diffusion
			6.3.3.1  Thermal Conductivity
			6.3.3.2  Radiative Thermal Conductivity
			6.3.3.3  Variation of the Effective Thermal Conductivity of Rocks With Temperature
			6.3.3.4  Thermal Diffusivity
	Box 6.3 Eduard Grüneisen*
	6.4  Thermal State of the Earth’s Core and Mantle
		6.4.1  Convection in the Outer Core
		6.4.2  Convection in the Earth\'s Mantle
	6.5  The Thermal State of the Earth’s Crust
		6.5.1  Global Variation of Terrestrial Heat Flow
		6.5.2  Distribution of Radioactive Sources With Depth
		6.5.3  Paleoclimate
		6.5.4  Cooling of Oceanic Lithosphere
		6.5.5  Heat Advection as a Measure of Fluid Flow
			6.5.5.1  Determination of Vertical Flow Rates by Péclet Number Analysis of Temperature Profiles
			6.5.5.2  Dimensional Analysis of Thermal Systems
			6.5.5.3  Free Convection in Porous Rock
	6.6  Exercises
	Selected Textbooks and Reference Literature
7 Appendix
	7.1  Geological Time Table and Periodic Table of the Elements
	7.2  General Reference Data, Conversion Factors, and Fundamental Constants
	7.3  Caution when using Large Numbers, Abbreviations, Prefixes, and Names of Multiples and Fractions of Ten in Different Languages
	7.4  Calculating with Vectors and Tensors
	7.5  The Error Function
	7.6  Legendre Transformation
	7.7  Seismic Intensity Scale EMS-98
	7.8  Seismometer Response Function
	7.9  Generation of a Turbulent Magnetic Field Parallel to a Mean Magnetic Field (α-effect)
	7.10  Equations of Hydrodynamics
		7.10.1  Euler’s Equation of Motion of an Ideal Fluid
		7.10.2  Navier-Stokes Equation for Viscous Fluid Flow
		7.10.3  Stokes Flow
		7.10.4  Oberbeck-Boussinesq Approximation
	7.11  Equations of Hydrothermics
		7.11.1  Energy Transport in Viscous Fluids
		7.11.2  Heating or Cooling of a Homogeneous Half-Space from above
		7.11.3  Onset of free Convection—Linear Stability Analysis
		7.11.4  Ocean Depth above an Isostatically Equilibrated, Lithospheric Plate of Finite Thickness, Cooled from Above
8 Answers to the Exercises
List of Symbols and their Representation
References
Index