Introduction to General, Organic and Biochemistry

Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents in Brief
Contents
Preface
Health-Related Topics
CHAPTER 1 Matter, Energy, and Measurement
	1.1 Why Do We Call Chemistry the Study of Matter?
	1.2 What Is the Scientific Method?
	1.3 How Do Scientists Report Numbers?
	1.4 How Do We Make Measurements?
		A. Length
		B. Volume
		C. Mass
		D. Time
		E. Temperature
	1.5 What Is a Handy Way to Convert from One Unit to Another?
	HOW TO . . . Do Unit Conversions by the Factor-Label Method
	1.6 What Are the States of Matter?
	1.7 What Are Density and Specific Gravity?
		A. Density
		B. Specific Gravity
	1.8 How Do We Describe the Various Forms of Energy?
	1.9 How Do We Describe Heat and the Ways in Which It Is Transferred?
		A. Heat and Temperature
		B. Specific Heat
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		1A: Drug Dosage and Body Mass
		1B: Hypothermia and Hyperthermia
		1C: Cold Compresses, Waterbeds, and Lakes
CHAPTER 2 Atoms
	2.1 What Is Matter Made Of?
	2.2 How Do We Classify Matter?
		A. Elements
		B. Compounds
		C. Mixtures
	2.3 What Are the Postulates of Dalton\'s Atomic Theory?
		A. Evidence for Dalton’s Atomic Theory
		B. Monatomic, Diatomic, and Polyatomic Elements
	2.4 What Are Atoms Made Of?
		A. Three Subatomic Particles
		B. Mass Number
		C. Atomic Number
		D. Isotopes
		E. Atomic Weight
		F. The Mass and Size of an Atom
	2.5 What Is the Periodic Table?
		A. Origin of the Periodic Table
		B. Classification of the Elements
		C. Examples of Periodicity in the Periodic Table
	2.6 How Are the Electrons in an Atom Arranged?
		A. Electrons Are Distributed in Shells, Subshells, and Orbitals
		B. Orbitals Have Definite Shapes and Orientations in Space
		C. Electron Configurations of Atoms are Governed by Three Rules
		D. Showing Electron Configurations: Orbital Box Diagrams
		E. Showing Electron Configurations: Noble Gas Notations
		F. Showing Electron Configurations: Lewis Dot Structures
	2.7 How Are Electron Configuration and Position in the Periodic Table Related?
	2.8 What Are Periodic Properties?
		A. Atomic Size
		B. Ionization Energy
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		2A: Elements Necessary for Human Life
		2B: Abundance of Elements in the Human Body and in the Earth\'s Crust
		2C: Isotopic Abundances and Astrochemistry
		2D: Strontium-90
		2E: The Use of Metals as Historical Landmarks
CHAPTER 3 Nuclear Chemistry
	3.1 How Was Radioactivity Discovered?
	3.2 What Is Radioactivity?
	3.3 What Happens When a Nucleus Emits Radioactivity?
		A. Radioactive and Stable Nuclei
		B. Beta Emission
		C. Alpha Emission
		D. Positron Emission
		E. Gamma Emission
		F. Electron Capture
	HOW TO . . . Balance A Nuclear Equation
	3.4 What Is Nuclear Half-life?
	3.5 How Do We Detect and Measure Nuclear Radiation?
		A. Intensity
		B. Energy
	3.6 How Is Radiation Dosimetry Related to Human Health?
	3.7 What Is Nuclear Medicine?
		A. Medical Imaging
		B. Radiation Therapy
	3.8 What Is Nuclear Fusion?
	3.9 What Is Nuclear Fission and How Is It Related to Atomic Energy?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Summary of Key Reactions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		3A: Radioactive Dating
		3B: The Indoor Radon Problem
		3C: Magnetic Resonance Imaging
		3D: How Radiation Damages Tissues: Free Radicals
		3E: Radioactive Fallout from Nuclear Accidents
CHAPTER 4 Chemical Bonds
	4.1 What Do We Need to Know Before We Begin?
	4.2 What Is the Octet Rule?
	4.3 How Do We Name Anions and Cations?
		A. Naming Monatomic Cations
		B. Naming Monatomic Anions
		C. Naming Polyatomic Ions
	4.4 What Are the Two Major Types of Chemical Bonds?
		A. Ionic and Covalent Bonds
		B. Electronegativity and Chemical Bonds
	4.5 What Is an Ionic Bond and How Does One Form?
		A. Forming Ionic Bonds
		B. Predicting Formulas of Ionic Compounds
	4.6 How Do We Name Ionic Compounds?
		A. Binary Ionic Compounds of Metals That Form Only One Positive Ion
		B. Binary Ionic Compounds of Metals That Form More Than One Positive Ion
		C. Ionic Compounds That Contain Polyatomic Ions
	4.7 What Is a Covalent Bond and How Does One Form?
		A. Formation of a Covalent Bond
		B. Nonpolar and Polar Covalent Bonds
		C. Drawing Lewis Structures of Covalent Compounds
		D. Exceptions to the Octet Rule
	HOW TO . . . Draw Lewis Structures
	4.8 How Do We Name Binary Covalent Compounds?
	4.9 What is Resonance?
		A. Theory of Resonance
		B. Writing Acceptable Contributing Structures
	HOW TO . . . Draw Curved Arrows and Push Electrons
	4.10 How Do We Predict Bond Angles in Covalent Molecules?
	4.11 How Do We Determine if a Molecule Is Polar?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		4A: Coral Chemistry and Broken Bones
		4B: Ionic Compounds in Medicine
		4C: Nitric Oxide: Air Pollutant and Biological Messenger
CHAPTER 5 Chemical Reactions
	5.1 What Are Chemical Reactions?
	5.2 What Are Molecular Weights and Formula Weights, and How Do They Differ?
	5.3 What Is a Mole and How Do We Use It to Calculate Mass Relationships?
	5.4 How Do We Balance Chemical Equations?
	HOW TO . . . Balance a Chemical Equation
	5.5 How Do We Calculate Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions?
		A. Stoichiometry
		B. Limiting Reagents
		C. Percent Yield
	5.6 How Can We Predict if Ions in Aqueous Solution Will React with Each Other?
	5.7 What Are Oxidation and Reduction, and Why Do They Always Occur Together?
	5.8 What Is Heat of Reaction?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		5A: Solubility and Tooth Decay
		5B: Voltaic Cells
		5C: Oxidizing Antiseptics
CHAPTER 6 Gases, Liquids, and Solids
	6.1 What Are the Three States of Matter?
	6.2 What Is Gas Pressure and How Do We Measure It?
	6.3 What Are the Laws That Govern the Behavior of Gases?
		A. Boyle’s Law and the Pressure–Volume Relationship
		B. Charles’s Law and the Temperature–Volume Relationship
	6.4 What Are Avogadro\'s Law and the Ideal Gas Law?
	6.5 What Is Dalton\'s Law of Partial Pressures?
	6.6 What Is the Kinetic Molecular Theory?
	6.7 What Types of Attractive Forces Exist Between Molecules?
		A. London Dispersion Forces
		B. Dipole–Dipole Interactions
		C. Hydrogen Bond
	6.8 How Do We Describe the Behavior of Liquids at the Molecular Level?
		A. Surface Tension
		B. Vapor Pressure
		C. Hydrogen Bond
		D. Factors That Affect Boiling Point
	6.9 What Are the Characteristics of the Various Types of Solids?
	6.10 What Is a Phase Change and What Energies Are Involved?
		A. The Heating Curve for H[sub(2)]O(s) to H[sub(2)]O(g)
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		6A: Entropy: A Measure of Dispersal of Energy
		6B: Breathing and Boyle\'s Law
		6C: Hyperbaric Medicine
		6D: Blood Pressure Measurement
		6E: The Densities of Ice and Water
		6F: Supercritical Carbon Dioxide
CHAPTER 7 Solutions and Colloids
	7.1 What Do We Need to Know as We Begin?
	7.2 What Are the Most Common Types of Solutions?
	7.3 What Are the Distinguishing Characteristics of Solutions?
	7.4 What Factors Affect Solubility?
		A. Nature of the Solvent and the Solute
		B. Temperature
		C. Pressure
	7.5 What Are the Most Common Units for Concentration?
		A. Percent Concentration
		B. Molarity
		C. Dilution
		D. Parts per Million
	7.6 Why Is Water Such a Good Solvent?
		A. How Water Dissolves Ionic Compounds
		B. Solid Hydrates
		C. Electrolytes
		D. How Water Dissolves Covalent Compounds
		E. Water in the Body
	7.7 What Are Colloids?
	7.8 What Is a Colligative Property?
		A. Freezing-Point Depression
		B. Osmotic Pressure
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		7A: Acid Rain
		7B: The Bends
		7C: Hydrates and Air Pollution: The Decay of Buildings and Monuments
		7D: Emulsions and Emulsifying Agents
		7E: Reverse Osmosis and Desalinization
		7F: Hemodialysis
CHAPTER 8 Reaction Rates and Chemical Equilibrium
	8.1 How Do We Measure Reaction Rates?
	8.2 Why Do Some Molecular Collisions Result in Reaction Whereas Others Do Not?
	8.3 What Is the Relationship Between Activation Energy and Reaction Rate?
	8.4 How Can We Change the Rate of a Chemical Reaction?
		A. Nature of the Reactants
		B. Concentration
		C. Temperature
		D. Presence of a Catalyst
	8.5 What Does It Mean to Say That a Reaction Has Reached Equilibrium?
	8.6 What Is an Equilibrium Constant and How Do We Use It?
	8.7 How Long Does It Take for a Reaction to Reach Equilibrium?
	8.8 What Is Le Chatelier\'s Principle?
		A. Addition of a Reaction Component
		B. Removal of a Reaction Component
		C. Change in Temperature
		D. Change in Pressure
		E. The Effects of a Catalyst
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		8A: Why High Fever Is Dangerous
		8B: The Effects of Lowering Body Temperature
		8C: Timed-Release Medication
		8D: Sunglasses and Le Chatelier\'s Principle
		8E: The Haber Process
CHAPTER 9 Acid and Bases
	9.1 What Are Acids and Bases?
	9.2 How Do We Define the Strength of Acids and Bases?
	9.3 What Are Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs?
	9.4 How Can We Tell the Position of Equilibrium in an Acid–Base Reaction?
	9.5 How Do We Use Acid Ionization Constants?
	9.6 What Are the Properties of Acids and Bases?
		A. Neutralization
		B. Reaction with Metals
		C. Reaction with Metal Hydroxides
		D. Reaction with Metal Oxides
		E. Reaction with Carbonates and Bicarbonates
		F. Reaction with Ammonia and Amines
	9.7 What Are the Acidic and Basic Properties of Pure Water?
	HOW TO . . . Use Logs and Antilogs
	9.8 What Are pH and pOH?
	9.9 How Do We Use Titrations to Calculate Concentration?
	9.10 What Are Buffers?
		A. How Do Buffers Work?
		B. Buffer pH
		C. Buffer Capacity
		D. Blood Buffers
	9.11 How Do We Calculate the pH of a Buffer?
	9.12 What Are TRIS, HEPES, and These Buffers with the Strange Names?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		9A: Some Important Acids and Bases
		9B: Acid and Base Burns of the Cornea
		9C: Drugstore Antacids
		9D: Respiratory and Metabolic Acidosis
		9E: Alkalosis and Sprinter\'s Trick
CHAPTER 10 Organic Chemistry
	10.1 What Is Organic Chemistry?
	10.2 Where Do We Obtain Organic Compounds?
		A. Isolation from Nature
		B. Synthesis in the Laboratory
	10.3 How Do We Write Structural Formulas of Organic Compounds?
	10.4 What Are Functional Groups?
		A. Alcohols
		B. Amines
		C. Aldehydes and Ketones
		D. Carboxylic Acids
		E. Carboxylic Esters
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		10A: Taxol: A Story of Search and Discovery
		10B: Combinatorial Chemistry
CHAPTER 11 Alkanes
	11.1 How Do We Write Structural Formulas of Alkanes?
	11.2 What Are Constitutional Isomers?
	11.3 How Do We Name Alkanes?
		A. The IUPAC System
		B. Common Names
	11.4 What Are Cycloalkanes?
	11.5 What Are the Shapes of Alkanes and Cycloalkanes?
		A. Alkanes
		B. Cycloalkanes
	11.6 What Is Cis-Trans Isomerism in Cycloalkanes?
	11.7 What Are the Physical Properties of Alkanes?
		A. Melting and Boiling Points
		B. Solubility: A Case of “Like Dissolves Like”
		C. Density
	11.8 What Are the Characteristic Reactions of Alkanes?
		A. Reaction with Oxygen: Combustion
		B. Reaction with Halogens: Halogenation
	11.9 What Are Some Important Haloalkanes?
		A. Chlorofluorocarbons
		B. Solvents
	11.10 Where Do We Obtain Alkanes?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Summary of Key Reactions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		11A: The Poisonous Puffer Fish
		11B: The Environmental Impact of Freons
		11C: Octane Rating: What Those Numbers at the Pump Mean
CHAPTER 12 Alkenes and Alkynes
	12.1 What Are Alkenes and Alkynes?
	12.2 What Are the Structures of Alkenes and Alkynes?
		A. Alkenes
		B. Cis-TransStereoisomerism in Alkenes
	12.3 How Do We Name Alkenes and Alkynes?
		A. IUPAC Names
		B. Common Names
		C. Cis and Trans Configurations of Alkenes
		D. Cycloalkenes
		E. Dienes, Trienes, and Polyenes
	12.4 What Are the Physical Properties of Alkenes and Alkynes?
	12.5 What Are Terpenes?
	12.6 What Are the Characteristic Reactions of Alkenes?
		A. Addition of Hydrogen Halides (Hydrohalogenation)
		B. Addition of Water: Acid-Catalyzed Hydration
		C. Addition of Bromine and Chlorine (Halogenation)
		D. Addition of Hydrogen: Reduction (Hydrogenation)
	12.7 What Are the Important Polymerization Reactions of Ethylene and Substituted Ethylenes?
		A. Structure of Polyethylenes
		B. Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE)
		C. High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
	Summary of Key Questions
	Summary of Key Reactions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		12A: Ethylene: A Plant Growth Regulator
		12B: The Case of the Iowa and New York Strains of the European Corn Borer
		12C: Cis-TransIsomerism in Vision
		12D: Recycling Plastics
CHAPTER 13 Benzene and Its Derivatives
	13.1 What Is the Structure of Benzene?
		A. Kekulé’s Structure of Benzene
		B. Resonance Structure of Benzene
	13.2 How Do We Name Aromatic Compounds?
		A. One Substituent
		B. Two Substituents
		C. Three or More Substituents
		D. Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons
	13.3 What Are the Characteristic Reactions of Benzene and Its Derivatives?
		A. Halogenation
		B. Nitration
	13.4 What Are Phenols?
		A. Structure and Nomenclature
		B. Acidity of Phenols
		C. Phenols as Antioxidants
	Summary of Key Questions
	Summary of Key Reactions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		13A: DDT: A Boon and a Curse
		13B: Carcinogenic Polynuclear Aromatics and Smoking
		13C: Iodide Ion and Goiter
		13D: The Nitro Group in Explosives
		13E: FD & C No. 6 (a.k.a. Sunset Yellow)
		13F: Capsaicin, for Those Who Like It Hot
CHAPTER 14 Alcohols, Ethers, and Thiols
	14.1 What Are the Structures, Names, and Properties of Alcohols?
		A. Structure of Alcohols
		B. Nomenclature
		C. Physical Properties of Alcohols
	14.2 What Are the Characteristic Reactions of Alcohols?
		A. Acidity of Alcohols
		B. Acid-Catalyzed Dehydration Alkenes
		C. Oxidation of Primary and Secondary Alcohols
	14.3 What Are the Structures, Names, and Properties of Ethers?
		A. Structure
		B. Nomenclature
		C. Physical Properties
		D. Reactions of Ethers
	14.4 What Are the Structures, Names, and Properties of Thiols?
		A. Structure
		B. Nomenclature
		C. Physical Properties
		D. Reactions of Thiols
	14.5 What Are the Most Commercially Important Alcohols?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Summary of Key Reactions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		14A: Nitroglycerin: An Explosive and a Drug
		14B: Breath-Alcohol Screening
		14C: Ethylene Oxide: A Chemical Sterilant
		14D: Ethers and Anesthesia
CHAPTER 15 Chirality: The Handedness of Molecules
	15.1 What Is Enantiomerism?
	HOW TO . . . Draw Enantiomers
	15.2 How Do We Specify the Configuration of a Stereocenter?
	15.3 How Many Stereoisomers Are Possible for Molecules with Two or More Stereocenters?
		A. Molecules with Two Stereocenters
		B. Molecules with Three or More Stereocenters
	15.4 What Is Optical Activity, and How Is Chirality Detected in the Laboratory?
		A. Plane-Polarized Light
		B. A Polarimeter
	15.5 What Is the Significance of Chirality in the Biological World?
		A. Chirality in Biomolecules
		B. How Does an Enzyme Distinguishes Between a Molecule and Its Enantiomer?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		15A: Chiral Drugs
CHAPTER 16 Amines
	16.1 What Are Amines?
		A. IUPAC Names
		B. Common Names
	16.2 How Do We Name Amines?
		A. IUPAC Names
		B. Common Names
	16.3 What Are the Physical Properties of Amines?
	16.4 How Do We Describe the Basicity of Amines?
	16.5 What Are the Characteristic Reactions of Amines?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Summary of Key Reactions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		16A: Amphetamines (Pep Pills)
		16B: Alkaloids
		16C: Tranquilizers
		16D: The Solubility of Drugs in Body Fluids
		16E: Epinephrine: A Prototype for the Development of New Bronchodilators
CHAPTER 17 Aldehydes and Ketones
	17.1 What Are Aldehydes and Ketones?
	17.2 How Do We Name Aldehydes and Ketones?
		A. IUPAC Names
		B. Common Names
	17.3 What Are the Physical Properties of Aldehydes and Ketones?
	17.4 What Are the Characteristic Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones?
		A. Oxidation
		B. Reduction
		C. Addition of Alcohols
	17.5 What Is Keto-Enol Tautomerism?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Summary of Key Reactions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		17A: Some Naturally Occurring Aldehydes and Ketones
CHAPTER 18 Carboxylic Acids
	18.1 What Are Carboxylic Acids?
	18.2 How Do We Name Carboxylic Acids?
		A. IUPAC Names
		B. Common Names
	18.3 What Are the Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids?
	18.4 What Are Soaps and Detergents?
		A. Fatty Acids
		B. Structure and Preparation of Soaps
		C. How Soap Cleans
		D. Synthetic Detergents
	18.5 What Are the Characteristic Reactions of Carboxylic Acids?
		A. Acidity
		B. Reaction with Bases
		C. Reduction
		D. Fischer Esterification
		E. Decarboxylation
	Summary of Key Questions
	Summary of Key Reactions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		18A: TransFatty Acids: What Are They and How Do You Avoid Them?
		18B: Esters as Flavoring Agents
		18C: Ketone Bodies and Diabetes
CHAPTER 19 Carboxylic Anhydrides, Esters, and Amides
	19.1 What Are Carboxylic Anhydrides, Esters, and Amides?
		A. Anhydrides
		B. Esters
		C. Amides
	19.2 How Do We Prepare Esters?
	19.3 How Do We Prepare Amides?
	19.4 What Are the Characteristic Reactions of Carboxylic Anhydrides, Esters, and Amides?
		A. Reaction with Water: Hydrolysis
		B. Reaction with Alcohols
		C. Reaction with Ammonia and Amines
	19.5 What Are Phosphoric Anhydrides and Phosphoric Esters?
		A. Phosphoric Anhydrides
		B. Phosphoric Esters
	19.6 What Is Step-Growth Polymerization?
		A. Polyamides
		B. Polyesters
		C. Polycarbonates
	Summary of Key Questions
	Summary of Key Reactions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		19A: The Pyrethrins: Natural Insecticides of Plant Origin
		19B: The Penicillins and Cephalosporins: β-Lactam Antibiotics
		19C: From Willow Bark to Aspirin and Beyond
		19D: Ultraviolet Sunscreens and Sunblocks
		19E: Barbiturates
		19F: Stitches That Dissolve
CHAPTER 20 Carbohydrates
	20.1 Carbohydrates: What Are Monosaccharides?
		A. Structure and Nomenclature
		B. Fischer Projection Formulas
		C. D-and L-Monosaccharides
		D. Amino Sugars
		E. Physical Properties of Monosaccharides
	20.2 What Are the Cyclic Structures of Monosaccharides?
		A. Haworth Projections
		B. Conformation Representations
	20.3 What Are the Characteristic Reactions of Monosaccharides?
		A. Formation of Glycosides (Acetals)
		B. Reduction to Alditols
		C. Oxidation to Aldonic Acids (Reducing Sugars)
		D. Oxidation to Uronic Acids
		E. The Formation of Phosphoric Esters
	20.4 What Are Disaccharides and Oligosaccharides?
		A. Sucrose
		B. Lactose
		C. Maltose
		D. Relative Sweetness
	20.5 What Are Polysaccharides?
		A. Starch: Amylose and Amylopectin
		B. Glycogen
		C. Cellulose
	20.6 What Are Acidic Polysaccharides?
		A. Hyaluronic Acid
		B. Heparin
	Summary of Key Questions
	Summary of Key Reactions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		20A: Galactosemia
		20B: L-Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)
		20C: Testing for Glucose
		20D: A, B, AB, and O Blood Types
		20E: High-Fructose Corn Syrup
CHAPTER 21 Lipids
	21.1 What Are Lipids?
		A. Classification by Function
		B. Classification by Structure
	21.2 What Are the Structures of Triglycerides?
	21.3 What Are Some Properties of Triglycerides?
		A. Physical State
		B. Hydrogenation
		C. Saponification
	21.4 What Are the Structures of Complex Lipids?
	21.5 What Role Do Lipids Play in the Structure of Membranes?
	21.6 What Are Glycerophospholipids?
	21.7 What Are Sphingolipids?
	21.8 What Are Glycolipids?
	21.9 What Are Steroids?
		A. Cholesterol
		B. Lipoproteins: Carriers of Cholesterol
		C. Transport of Cholesterol in LDL
		D. Transport of Cholesterol in HDL
		E. Levels of LDL and HDL
	21.10 What Are Some of the Physiological Roles of Steroid Hormones?
		A. Adrenocorticoid Hormones
		B. Sex Hormones
	21.11 What Are Bile Salts?
	21.12 What Are Prostaglandins, Thromboxanes, and Leukotrienes?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		21A: Rancidity
		21B: Waxes
		21C: Transport Across Cell Membranes
		21D: The Myelin Sheath and Multiple Sclerosis
		21E: Lipid Storage Diseases
		21F: Anabolic Steroids
		21G: Oral Contraception
		21H: Action of Anti-inflammatory Drugs
CHAPTER 22 Proteins
	22.1 What Are the Many Functions of Proteins?
	22.2 What Are Amino Acids?
	22.3 What Are Zwitterions?
	22.4 What Determines the Characteristics of Amino Acids?
	22.5 What Are Uncommon Amino Acids?
	22.6 How Do Amino Acids Combine to Form Proteins?
	22.7 What Are the Properties of Proteins?
	22.8 What Is the Primary Structure of a Proteins?
	22.9 What Is the Secondary Structure of a Protein?
	22.10 What Is the Tertiary Structure of a Protein?
	22.11 What Is the Quaternary Structure of a Protein?
	22.12 How Are Proteins Denatured?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		22A: Glutathione
		22B: AGE and Aging
		22C: The Use of Human Insulin
		22D: Sickle Cell Anemia
		22E: Protein/Peptide Conformation–Dependent Diseases
		22F: Proteomics, Ahoy!
		22G: Quaternary Structure and Allosteric Proteins
		22H: Laser Surgery and Protein Denaturation
CHAPTER 23 Enzymes
	23.1 What Are Enzymes?
	23.2 How Are Enzymes Named and Classified?
	23.3 What Is the Terminology Used with Enzymes?
	23.4 What Factors Influence Enzyme Activity?
		A. Enzyme and Substrate Concentration
		B. Temperature
		C. pH
	23.5 What Are the Mechanisms of Enzyme Action?
		A. Lock-and-Key Model
		B. Induced-Fit Model
		C. Catalytic Power of Enzymes
	23.6 How Are Enzymes Regulated?
		A. Feedback Control
		B. Proenzymes
		C. Allosterism
		D. Protein Modification
		E. Isoenzymes
	23.7 How Are Enzymes Used in Medicine?
	23.8 What Are Transition-State Analogs and Designer Enzymes?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		23A: Muscle Relaxants and Enzyme Specificity
		23B: Acidic Environment and Helicobacter
		23C: Active Sites
		23D: Medical Uses of Inhibitors
		23E: Glycogen Phosphorylase: A Model of Enzyme Regulation
		23F: One Enzyme, Two Functions
		23G: Catalytic Antibodies Against Cocaine
CHAPTER 24 Chemical Communications: Neurotransmitters and Hormones
	24.1 What Molecules Are Involved in Chemical Communications?
	24.2 How Are Chemical Messengers Classified as Neurotransmitters and Hormones?
	24.3 How Does Acetylcholine Act as a Messenger?
		A. Cholinergic Receptors
		B. Storage of Messengers
		C. The Action of Messengers
		D. The Removal of Messengers
		E. Control of Neurotransmission
	24.4 What Amino Acids Act as Neurotransmitters?
		A. Messengers
		B. Receptors
		C. Removal of Messengers
	24.5 What Are Adrenergic Messengers?
		A. Monoamine Messengers
		B. Action of Messengers
		C. Secondary Messengers
		D. Removal of Signal
		E. Control of Neurotransmission
		F. Removal of Neurotransmitters
		G. Histamines
	24.6 What Is the Role of Peptides in Chemical Communication?
		A. Messengers
		B. Secondary Messengers
	24.7 How Do Steroid Hormones Act as Messengers?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		24A: Calcium as a Signaling Agent (Secondary Messenger)
		24B: Nerve Gases and Antidotes
		24C: Botulism and Acetylcholine Release
		24D: Alzheimer\'s Disease and Acetylcholine Transferase
		24E: Parkinson\'s Disease: Depletion of Dopamine
		24F: Nitric Oxide as a Secondary Messenger
		24G: Diabetes
		24H: Tamoxifen and Breast Cancer
CHAPTER 25 Nucleotides, Nucleic Acid, and Heredity
	25.1 What Are the Molecules of Heredity?
	25.2 What Are Nucleic Acids Made of?
		A. Bases
		B. Sugars
		C. Phosphate
	25.3 What Is the Structure of DNA and RNA?
		A. Primary Structure
		B. Secondary Structure of DNA
		C. Higher-Order Structures of DNA
	25.4 What Are the Different Classes of RNA?
	25.5 What Are Genes?
	25.6 How Is DNA Replicated?
	25.7 How Is DNA Repaired?
	25.8 How Do We Amplify DNA?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		25A: Anticancer Drugs
		25B: Telomeres, Telomerase, and Immortality
		25C: DNA Fingerprinting
		25D: Why Does DNA Contain Thymine and Not Uracil?
		25E: Pharmacogenomics: Tailoring Medication to an Individual\'s Predisposition
CHAPTER 26 Gene Expression and Protein Synthesis
	26.1 How Does DNA Lead to RNA and Protein?
	26.2 How Is DNA Transcribed into RNA?
	26.3 What Is The Role of RNA in Translation?
	26.4 What Is the Genetic Code?
	26.5 How Is Protein Synthesized?
		A. Activation
		B. Initiation
		C. Elongation
		D. Termination
	26.6 How Are Genes Regulated?
		A. Control at the Transcriptional Level
		B. Control on the Post-transcriptional Level
		C. Control on the Translational Level
	26.7 What Are Mutations?
	26.8 How and Why Do We Manipulate DNA?
	26.9 What Is Gene Therapy?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		26A: \"Antisense\" Makes Sense
		26B: Breaking the Dogma: The Twenty-First Amino Acid
		26C: Viruses
		26D: CREB: The Most Important Protein You Have Never Heard Of?
		26E: Mutations and Biochemical Evolution
		26F: Oncogenes
		26G: p53: A Central Tumor Suppressor Protein
CHAPTER 27 Bioenergetics: How the Body Converts Food to Energy
	27.1 What Is Metabolism?
	27.2 What Are Mitochondria, and What Role Do They Play in Metabolism?
	27.3 What Are the Principal Compounds of the Common Metabolic Pathway?
		A. Agents for Storage of Energy and Transfer of Phosphate Groups
		B. Agents for Transfer of Electrons in Biological Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
		C. Agent for Transfer of Acetyl Groups
	27.4 What Role Does the Citric Acid Cycle Play in Metabolism?
	27.5 How Do Electron and H[sup(+)] Transport Take Place?
	27.6 What Is the Role of the Chemiosmotic Pump in ATP Production?
	27.7 What Is the Energy Yield Resulting from Electron and H[sup(+)] Transport?
	27.8 How Is Chemical Energy Converted to Other Forms of Energy?
		A. Conversion to Other Forms of Chemical Energy
		B. Electrical Energy
		C. Mechanical Energy
		D. Heat Energy
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		27A: Uncoupling and Obesity
		27B: Protection Against Oxidative Damage
CHAPTER 28 Specific Catabolic Pathways: Carbohydrate, Lipid, and Protein Metabolism
	28.1 What Is the General Outline of Catabolic Pathways?
		A. Carbohydrates
		B. Lipids
		C. Proteins
	28.2 What Are the Reactions of Glycolysis?
		A. Glycolysis of Glucose
		B. Entrance to the Citric Acid Cycle
		C. Pentose Phosphate Pathway
	28.3 What Is the Energy Yield from Glucose Catabolism?
	28.4 How Does Glycerol Catabolism Take Place?
	28.5 What Are the Reactions of β-Oxidation of Fatty Acids?
	28.6 What Is the Energy Yield from Stearic Acid Catabolism?
	28.7 What Are Ketone Bodies?
	28.8 How Is the Nitrogen of Amino Acids Processed in Catabolism?
		A. Transamination
		B. Oxidative Deamination
		C. Urea Cycle
		D. Other Pathways of Nitrogen Catabolism
	28.9 How Are the Carbon Skeletons of Amino Acids Processed in Catabolism?
	28.10 What Are the Reactions of Catabolism of Heme?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		28A: Lactate Accumulation
		28B: Effects of Signal Transduction on Metabolism
		28C: Ketoacidosis in Diabetes
		28D: Ubiquitin and Protein Targeting
		28E: Hereditary Defects in Amino Acid Catabolism: PKU
		28F: Jaundice
CHAPTER 29 Biosynthetic Pathways
	29.1 What Is the General Outline of Biosynthetic Pathways?
	29.2 How Does the Biosynthesis of Carbohydrates Take Place?
		A. Conversion of Atmospheric to Glucose in Plants
		B. Synthesis of Glucose in Animals
		C. Conversion of Glucose to Other Carbohydrates in Animals
	29.3 How Does the Biosynthesis of Fatty Acids Take Place?
	29.4 How Does the Biosynthesis of Membrane Lipids Take Place?
	29.5 How Does the Biosynthesis of Amino Acids Take Place?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		29A: Photosynthesis
		29B: Prenylation of Ras Protein and Cancer
		29C: Amino Acid Transport and Blue Diaper Syndrome
		29D: Essential Amino Acids
CHAPTER 30 Nutrition
	30.1 How Do We Measure Nutrition?
	30.2 Why Do We Count Calories?
	30.3 How Does the Body Process Dietary Carbohydrates?
	30.4 How Does the Body Process Dietary Fats?
	30.5 How Does the Body Process Dietary Protein?
	30.6 What Is the Importance of Vitamins, Minerals, and Water?
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		30A: The New Food Guide Pyramid
		30B: Why Is It So Hard to Lose Weight?
		30C: Dieting and Artificial Sweeteners
		30D: Food for Performance Enhancement
CHAPTER 31 Immunochemistry
	31.1 How Does the Body Defend Itself from Invasion?
		A. Innate Immunity
		B. Adaptive Immunity
		C. Components of the Immune System
	31.2 What Organs and Cells Make Up the Immune System?
		A. Lymphoid Organs
		B. Cells of the Internal Innate Immunity
		C. Cells of Adaptive Immunity: T and B Cells
	31.3 How Do Antigens Stimulate the Immune System?
		A. Antigens
		B. Major Histocompatibility Complexes
	31.4 What Are Immunoglobulins?
		A. Classes of Immunoglobulins
		B. Structure of Immunoglobulins
		C. B Cells and Antibodies
		D. How Does the Body Acquire the Diversity Needed to React to Different Antigens?
		E. Monoclonal Antibodies
	31.5 What Are T Cells and T-Cell Receptors?
		A. T-Cell Receptors
		B. T-Cell Receptor Complex
	31.6 How Is the Immune Response Controlled?
		A. Nature of Cytokines
		B. Classes of Cytokines
		C. Mode of Action of Cytokines
	31.7 How Does the Body Distinguish \"Self\" from \"Nonself\"?
		A. Selection of T and B Cells
		B. Discrimination of the Cells of the Innate Immunity System
		C. Autoimmune Diseases
	31.8 How Does the Human Immunodeficiency Virus Cause AIDS?
		A. HIV\'s Ability to Confound the Immune System
		B. The Search for a Vaccine
		C. Antiviral Therapy
		D. A Second Chance for Antibodies
		E. The Future of Antibody Research
	Summary of Key Questions
	Problems
	CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
		31A: The Mayapple and Chemotherapy Agents
		31B: Antibodies and Cancer Therapy
		31C: Immunization
		31D: Antibiotics: A Double-Edged Sword
		31E: Why Are Stem Cells Special?
Appendix I: Exponential Notation
Appendix II: Significant Figures
Answers to In-Text and Odd-Numbered End-of-Chapter Problems
Glossary
Credits
Index