Introduction to epidemiology

Title
Copyright
Dedication
CONTENTS
Preface
Introduction
About the Author
New to the Seventh Edition
1 Foundations of Epidemiology
	Activities in Epidemiology
	Role of Epidemiology in Public Health Practice
	Epidemics, Endemics, and Pandemics
	Case Concepts in Epidemiology
	The Epidemiology Triangle
	Some Disease Transmission Concepts
	Modes of Disease Transmission
	Chain of Infection
	Other Models of Causation
	Levels of Prevention
		Primary Prevention
		Secondary Prevention
		Tertiary Prevention
	Conclusion
	EXERCISES
		Key Terms
		Study Questions
		References
2 Historic Developments in Epidemiology
	Hippocrates, the First Epidemiologist
	Disease Observations of Sydenham
	The Epidemiology of Scurvy
	Epidemiology of Cowpox and Smallpox
	Epidemiology of Childbed Fever in a Lying-In Hospital
	John Snow’s Epidemiologic Investigations of Cholera
	Epidemiologic Work of Pasteur and Koch
	The Invention of the Microscope
	John Graunt and Vital Statistics
	Occupational Health and Industrial Hygiene
	Florence Nightingale
	Typhoid Mary
	Vitamins and Nutritional Diseases
	Beginning of Epidemiology in the United States
	Historical Development of Morbidity in Epidemiology
	The Epidemiology of Breast Cancer
	The Framingham Heart Study
	Cigarette Smoking and Cancer
	Modern Epidemiology
	Conclusion
	EXERCISES
		Key Terms
		Study Questions
		References
3 Practical Disease Concepts in Epidemiology
	Communicable and Noncommunicable Diseases and Conditions
	Natural History of Disease
	Classifying Disease
	Portals of Entry to the Human Body
	Incubation Periods for Selected Infectious Diseases
	Later Stages of Infection
	Zoonoses
	International Classification of Diseases
	Notifiable Diseases in the United States
	Protecting Public Health Through Immunization
	Herd Immunity
	Communicable Disease Prevention and Control
	Environmental Control
	Host-Related Control and Prevention
	Infection Control and Prevention Measures
	Changing Emphasis in Epidemiologic Studies
	Nutritional Deficiency Diseases and Disorders
	Chronic Diseases and Conditions
	Prevention and Control
	Disability
	Healthy People Initiatives
	Conclusion
	EXERCISES
		Key Terms
		Study Questions
		References
4 Design Strategies and Statistical Methods in Descriptive Epidemiology
	Descriptive Study Designs
		Ecologic Study
		Case Reports and Case Series
		Cross-Sectional Surveys
		Serial Surveys
	Types of Data
	Ratios, Proportions, and Rates
		Crude and Age-Adjusted Incidence and Mortality Rates
		Direct Method for Age-Adjusting Rates
		Indirect Method of Age Adjustment
		Category-Specific Rates
		Confidence Intervals
	Tables, Graphs, and Numerical Measures
		Tables
		Numerical Methods
	Measures of Statistical Association
	Conclusion
	EXERCISES
		Key Terms
		Study Questions
		References
5 Descriptive Epidemiology According to Person, Place, and Time
	Person, Place, and Time
	Person
		Age
		Population Pyramid
		Gender
		Race/Ethnicity
		Marital and Family Status
		Family Structure and Genealogical Research
		Occupation
		Education
	Place
	Time Trends
	Evaluation
	Public Health Surveillance
	Causal Insights
	Conclusion
	EXERCISES
		Key Terms
		Study Questions
		References
6 General Health and Population Indicators
	Health Indicator
	Birth
		Contraceptive Prevalence
	Mortality
		Causes of Death
		Causes of Death on the Death Certificate
		Underlying Cause of Death
		Death Certificate Data
	Types of Mortality Rates
		Mortality Rate
	Infant Mortality
		Infant Mortality Rate
		Neonatal Mortality Rate
		Postneonatal Mortality Rate
		Perinatal Mortality Rates
		Fetal Death Rate
	Maternal Mortality Rate
	Proportional Mortality Ratio
	Death-to-Case Ratio
	Years of Potential Life Lost
	Conclusion
	EXERCISES
		Key Terms
		Study Questions
		References
7 Design Strategies and Statistical Methods in Analytic Epidemiology
	Observational Analytic Studies
	Case-Control Study Design
		Selection of Cases
		Selection of Controls
		Exposure Status
	Odds Ratio in Case-Control Studies
	Bias in Case-Control Studies
		Selection Bias
		Observation Bias
		Misclassification
		Confounding
	Controlling for Bias in Case-Control Studies
	Strengths and Weaknesses of Case-Control Studies
	Case-Crossover Study Design
	Nested Case-Control Study Design
	Cohort Study Design
	Risk Ratio in Cohort Studies
	Rate Ratio in Cohort Studies
	Double-Cohort Studies
	Selecting the Study Cohort
	Bias in Cohort Studies
		Selection Bias
		Confounding
		Misclassification
	Controlling for Bias in Cohort Studies
	Strengths and Weaknesses of Cohort Studies
	Effect Modification
	Conclusion
	Exercises
		Key Terms
		Study Questions
		References
8 Experimental Studies in Epidemiology
	Experimental Study Designs
	Randomization
	Blinding
	Nonrandomization
	Designing a Randomized Controlled Trial
		Selecting the Intervention
		Assembling the Study Cohort
		Measuring Baseline Variables
		Choice of a Comparison Group
		Ensuring Compliance
		Selecting the Outcome (End Point)
	Pilot Study
	Selected Special Types of Randomized Study Designs
		Run-In Design
		Factorial Design
		Randomization of Matched Pairs
		Group Randomization
	Strengths and Weaknesses of Double-Blind Randomized Clinical Trials
	Ethics in Experimental Research
	Conclusion
	EXERCISES
		Key Terms
		Study Questions
		References
9 Causality
	Statistical Inference
	Hypothesis Development and Testing
		Hypothesis Formulation
		Hypothesis Testing
		Chance
		Bias
		Confounding
		Causality
	Causal Inference
	Causal Guidelines
	Web of Causation
	Decision Trees
		Construction of a Web of Causation and Decision Trees
	Fish Bone Diagram (Cause–Effect Diagram)
	Conclusion
	EXERCISES
		Key Terms
		Study Questions
		References
10 Field Epidemiology
	Conducting a Field Investigation
		Prepare for Fieldwork
		Establish the Existence of an Epidemic or Outbreak
		Confirm the Diagnosis
		Establish Criteria for Case Identification
		Search for Missing Cases
		Count Cases
		Orient the Data According to Person, Place, and Time
		Classify the Epidemic
		Determine Who Is at Risk of Becoming a Case
		Formulate Hypotheses
		Test the Hypotheses
		Develop Reports and Inform Those Who Need to Know
		Execute Control and Prevention Measures
		Administration and Planning Activities
	Investigation of a Food-borne Illness
		Examples of How Field Epidemiology Influenced Public Health
	Basic Epidemiologic Questions
	Disease Clusters
		Guidelines for Investigating Clusters
	Conclusion
	EXERCISES
		Key Terms
		Study Questions
		References
11 Chronic Disease Epidemiology
	Chronic Disease Epidemiology
	The Environment and Chronic Health Problems
		Physical Stresses and Health
		Chemicals and Health
		Toxicokinetics
		Biologic Agents and Health
		The Social Environment and Health
	Behavior and Chronic Health Problems
		Smoking and Chronic Disease
		Diet and Chronic Disease
		Body Weight and Chronic Disease
		Sexual Practices and Chronic Disease
		Behavior Changes for Better Health
		Health Belief Model
	Heredity and Chronic Health Problems
	Multifactorial Etiology in Chronic Disease Epidemiology
	Priorities in Disease Prevention and Control
	Conclusion
	EXERCISES
		Key Terms
		Study Questions
		References
12 Clinical Epidemiology
	Clinical Epidemiology
	Screening and Diagnosis
		Screening Program Considerations
		Validity, Reliability, and Yield
	Evaluating the Screening Test
		Sensitivity and Specificity
		Predictive Value Positive and Predictive Value Negative
		Positive and Negative Likelihood Ratio Tests
	Prognosis
		Lead-Time Bias
		Length Bias
		Selection Bias
		Overdiagnosis Bias
		Avoiding Bias
	Health Outcomes Research
	Conclusion
	EXERCISES
		Key Terms
		Study Questions
		References
I Case Studies
	Case Study I: Snow on Cholera
	A. Observations on Cholera
		Communication of Cholera
		Cholera Propagated by Morbid Material Entering the Alimentary Canal
	Case Study Questions
	B. Cholera and the Broad Street Outbreak
	Case Study Questions
	C. Cholera Epidemic of 1853 and Two London Water Companies
		Cholera Epidemic of 1854
	Case Study Questions
	D. Epidemiologic Issues
		John Snow’s Answers to Objections
		Duration of Epidemic and Size of Population
		Effect of Season
		Alternative Theories
	Case Study Questions
	Case Study II: Working Through an Infectious Disease Outbreak
	Part I: Background
	Case Study Questions
	Part II: Outbreaks in Texas
	Case Study Questions
	Part III: Outbreaks in Other States
	Case Study Questions
	Part IV: Traceback and Environmental Investigations
	Case Study Questions
	Part V: Control and Prevention Measures
	Case Study Questions
	Case Study III: Common-Source Outbreak of Waterborne Shigellosis at a Public School
	Case of Common-Source Outbreak of Waterborne Shigellosis at a Public School
	Case Study Questions
	Case Study IV: Retrospective Analysis of Occupation and Alcohol-Related Mortality
	Case of Occupation and Alcohol-Related Causes of Death, California
	Which Alcohol-Related Causes of Death Are Associated With Which Occupations?
	Case Study Questions
	Case Study V: Retrospective Cohort Study of the Association of Congenital Malformations and Hazardous Waste
	Case on Congenital Malformations Associated With Proximity to Hazardous Waste Sites
	Case Study Questions
	Case Study VI: History and Epidemiology of Polio Epidemics
	Brief Review of Poliomyelitis as It Is Known Today
	Case Study Questions
	First Polio Epidemiologic Studies
		Names of Polio
		Age Issues: Not Just a Child’s Disease
		Karl Oskar Medin
		Ivar Wickman
		Epidemiological Questions
		Key Epidemiological Points
		Rural Observations
		Epidemic Curve
		Poliovirus Discovered
	Case Study Questions
	First Major Epidemic of Poliomyelitis in America: Rutland, Vermont
	Case Study Questions
	Simon Flexner, MD. and Wade Hamilton Frost, MD: American Epidemiologists Who Investigated Poliomyelitis
		Flexner
		Frost
		Frost’s Epidemiological Methods
	Case Study Questions
	Poliomyelitis Epidemic in Los Angeles, 1934
	Case Study Questions
	Epilogue
		References
II Selected Statistical Techniques for Measuring Association Between Two Variables According to Variable Type
III Common Study Designs with Selected Measures of Association and Test Statistics
IV Summary of Confidence Intervals for Evaluating Selected Hypotheses
	References
V Classification and Specialty Journals in Epidemiology
VI Epidemiologic Associations and Societies
VII Selected Answers to Chapter Questions
Glossary
Index