Introduction to Cryospheric Science

Foreword by Sun Honglie
Foreword by Fu Bojie
Preface
Contents
1 Cryosphere and Cryospheric Science
	1.1 Cryosphere
		1.1.1 Definition of the Cryosphere
		1.1.2 Cryosphere Classification and Its Characteristics
		1.1.3 Cryosphere Changes
	1.2 Cryospheric Science
		1.2.1 Definition and Scope of Cryospheric Science
		1.2.2 Cryospheric Science Framework and Research Approaches
		1.2.3 Establishment of Cryospheric Science
		1.2.4 Cryospheric Science in International Science Programs
		1.2.5 IPCC’s Focus in Cryospheric Science
	1.3 Cryosphere and Climate System
		1.3.1 Dynamic Processes and Changes of the Cryosphere
		1.3.2 Spatial and Temporal Scales for Cryosphere Development
		1.3.3 Interactions Between the Cryosphere and the Other Spheres
		1.3.4 Roles of Cryosphere in Climate System
	1.4 Role of Cryospheric Science in Economic and Social Development
		1.4.1 Water Cycle and Water Resources
		1.4.2 Cryospheric Disasters
		1.4.3 Mineral Resources and Engineering Construction
		1.4.4 Adventure and Tourism in Cryospheric Regions
		1.4.5 Benefits of Cryosphere to Human Society
		1.4.6 Geopolitics in Cryosphere
	1.5 Planetary Cryosphere
		1.5.1 Characteristics of Mars’ Cryosphere
		1.5.2 Evidence of Mars Water–Ice
2 Classification and Geographical Distribution of Cryosphere
	2.1 Distribution, Composition and Classification of Cryosphere at Global Scale
		2.1.1 Zonality of Cryosphere
		2.1.2 Components and Distribution of Cryosphere
		2.1.3 Continental Cryosphere, Marine Cryosphere, and Aerial Cryosphere
	2.2 Classification and Distribution of Continental Cryosphere
		2.2.1 Glacier (Including Ice Sheet)
		2.2.2 Frozen Ground
		2.2.3 Snow Cover
		2.2.4 River Ice and Lake Ice
	2.3 Classification and Distribution of Marine Cryosphere
		2.3.1 Ice Shelf and Iceberg
		2.3.2 Sea Ice
		2.3.3 Subsea Permafrost
	2.4 Classification and Distribution of the Aerial Cryosphere
		2.4.1 Classification
		2.4.2 Distribution
3 Formation and Development of the Cryosphere
	3.1 Conditions of Formation and Development of Cryosphere
		3.1.1 Glaciers
		3.1.2 Permafrost
		3.1.3 Snow Cover
		3.1.4 Lake Ice and River Ice
		3.1.5 Sea Ice, Ice Shelf, and Iceberg
	3.2 Physical Basis for Formation and Development of the Cryosphere
		3.2.1 Surface Energy Balance
		3.2.2 Surface Water Balance
		3.2.3 Heat Transfer in Cryospheric Material
		3.2.4 Mass Balance
		3.2.5 Soil Moisture Migration
	3.3 Continental Cryosphere
		3.3.1 Glacier
		3.3.2 Frozen Ground
		3.3.3 Snow Cover
		3.3.4 River Ice and Lake Ice
	3.4 Marine Cryosphere
		3.4.1 Sea Ice
		3.4.2 Ice Shelf and Iceberg
		3.4.3 Subsea Permafrost
	3.5 Aerial Cryosphere
		3.5.1 Snowflake
		3.5.2 Hail, Snow Pellet, and Sleet
4 Physical Properties of the Cryosphere
	4.1 Basic Structure and Physical Properties of Pure Ice
		4.1.1 Crystalline Structure
		4.1.2 Mechanical Properties
		4.1.3 Thermal Properties
		4.1.4 Optical and Electrical Properties
	4.2 Mechanical and Dynamic Characteristics of Cryospheric Components
		4.2.1 Glacier Motion and Dynamics
		4.2.2 Mechanical Properties of Frozen Ground
		4.2.3 Dynamical Characteristics of Snow Cover
		4.2.4 Dynamical Characteristics of River and Lake Ice
		4.2.5 Dynamical Characteristics of Sea Ice
	4.3 Thermal Properties of Main Cryospheric Components
		4.3.1 Temperature in Glacier
		4.3.2 Water Migration and Heat Transfer in Frozen Ground
		4.3.3 Thermal Properties of Snow Cover
		4.3.4 Thermal Properties of Sea Ice, River Ice and Lake Ice
	4.4 Other Properties of Main Cryospheric Components
		4.4.1 Albedo
		4.4.2 Electrical Properties
5 Chemical Characteristics of the Cryosphere
	5.1 Sources of Chemical Components in the Cryosphere
		5.1.1 Main Processes of Atmospheric Chemical Constituents into the Cryosphere
		5.1.2 Effects of Cryospheric Chemistry on the Climate and Environment
	5.2 Glacio-chemical Characteristics
		5.2.1 Inorganic Components
		5.2.2 Organic Components
		5.2.3 Insoluble Particles
		5.2.4 Stable Isotopes
	5.3 Chemical Characteristics of Frozen Ground
		5.3.1 Chemical Processes in Frozen and Freezing Ground
		5.3.2 Natural Gas Hydrates
	5.4 Chemical Characteristics of River and Lake Ice
		5.4.1 Changes in Hydrogen–Oxygen Stable Isotope Ratios Between Ice and Water
		5.4.2 Trace Gas Distribution in River and Lake Ice
		5.4.3 Exclusion and Optical Properties of Colored Dissolved Organic Matter in River and Lake Ice
	5.5 Chemical Characteristics of Sea Ice
		5.5.1 Sea-Ice Salinity and Its Evolution
		5.5.2 Sea-Ice Phase Diagram
		5.5.3 Gas in Sea Ice
		5.5.4 Effects of Biological Processes on Sea-Ice Chemistry
6 Climatic and Environmental Record in Cryosphere
	6.1 Ice Core Record
		6.1.1 Paleoclimatic Proxies in Ice Core
		6.1.2 Ice Core Dating
		6.1.3 Ice Core Records in Greenland Ice Sheet
		6.1.4 Ice Core Records in Antarctic Ice Sheet
		6.1.5 Ice Core Records in High Mountains
	6.2 Frozen Ground Record
		6.2.1 Ice-Wedges
		6.2.2 Frost Mound
	6.3 Tree Ring Record
		6.3.1 Major Climate Events Recorded by Alpine Tree Rings
		6.3.2 Glacier Fluctuations Recorded by Alpine Tree Rings
		6.3.3 Environmental Changes in Permafrost Region Recorded by Tree Rings from High Altitude Regions
		6.3.4 Snow Cover Changes Recorded by Tree Rings
	6.4 Lake Sediment Record
	6.5 Other Climatic and Environmental Proxies in Cryosphere
7 Cryospheric Evolutions at Different Time Scales
	7.1 Cryospheric Variations on Tectonism Scale
		7.1.1 The Late Proterozoic Glaciation
		7.1.2 Carboniferous-Permian Glaciation
		7.1.3 Quaternary Glaciation
		7.1.4 The Causes of Three Ice Ages
	7.2 The Cryospheric Evolution in Orbital Scale—Pleistocene Climatic Changes and Milankovitch Theory
		7.2.1 The Establishment of the Astronomical Theory of Ice Ages
		7.2.2 The Fundamental of the Astronomical Theory of Ice Ages
		7.2.3 Amendment of the Astronomical Theory of Ice Ages
		7.2.4 The Challenges of the Astronomic Theory of Ice Age
	7.3 The Cryospheric Evolution in the Sub-orbital Scale
		7.3.1 Some Important Events of Climate Change
		7.3.2 Cryospheric Evolution Since the Last Glaciation
	7.4 Cryospheric Variations in the Past Century
		7.4.1 Centennial Variation of Antarctic Ice Sheet
		7.4.2 Glacier Changes
		7.4.3 Global Changes of Permafrost
		7.4.4 Seasonal Snow in the Northern Hemisphere
		7.4.5 Sea Ice Changes in the Arctic and Southern Ocean
8 Interactions Between Cryosphere and the Other Spheres
	8.1 Cryosphere and Atmosphere
		8.1.1 Snow and Ice Albedo Feedback
		8.1.2 Exchange of Sensible Heat and Latent Heat Between Ice and Air
		8.1.3 Momentum Exchange Between Ice and Air
		8.1.4 Cryosphere and East Asian Monsoon
	8.2 Cryosphere and Biosphere
		8.2.1 Cryosphere and Ecology
		8.2.2 Cryosphere and Its C/N Cycles
	8.3 Cryosphere and Hydrosphere
		8.3.1 Characteristics and Roles of Cryospheric Hydrological Process
		8.3.2 Cryosphere and Macroscale Water Cycle
		8.3.3 Cryosphere and Sea Level
		8.3.4 Cryosphere and Terrestrial Hydrology
	8.4 Cryosphere and Lithosphere
		8.4.1 Glacial Erosion, Transportation, and Deposition
		8.4.2 Permafrost and Surface Layers of Lithosphere
9 Cryosphere Change Impact, Adaptation and Sustainable Development
	9.1 General Concepts for Cryospheric Effects and Sustainable Development
		9.1.1 Impact and Service
		9.1.2 Adaptation to Changes
		9.1.3 Sustainable Development
	9.2 Cryospheric Hazards and Disasters
		9.2.1 Glacier Hazards
		9.2.2 Snow Hazards
		9.2.3 Avalanche
		9.2.4 Spring Floods
		9.2.5 Ice-Jam Hazards
		9.2.6 Sea-Ice Hazards
	9.3 Vulnerability, Risk and Adaptation Assessment
		9.3.1 Vulnerability Assessment
		9.3.2 Risk Assessment
		9.3.3 Risk Management and Adaptation
	9.4 Cryosphere Services and Their Value
		9.4.1 Cryosphere Services
		9.4.2 Cryosphere Service Value
	9.5 Adaptation of Major Engineering Constructions in the Cryosphere
		9.5.1 The Construction of Railways and Highways in the Cryosphere
		9.5.2 Oil and Gas Pipelines in Cold Regions
		9.5.3 Ports in Sea-Ice Zones
	9.6 Cryosphere Services in Tourism
		9.6.1 Cryosphere Tourism
		9.6.2 Characteristics of Cryosphere Tourism Resources
		9.6.3 Overview of International Cryosphere Tourism Development
10 Field Observations and Measurements for Cryospheric Science
	10.1 The Role of Observations and Experimental Technology in Advancing Cryospheric Science
	10.2 Field Observations, Survey Methods and Techniques
		10.2.1 General Methods and Techniques
		10.2.2 Observations of Cryospheric Components
	10.3 Experimental Techniques in the Laboratory
		10.3.1 Mechanics
		10.3.2 Thermology
		10.3.3 Optical Methods
		10.3.4 Microphysical Structure
		10.3.5 Chemical Composition
		10.3.6 Methods of Dating
	10.4 Remote Sensing Technology
		10.4.1 Optical Remote Sensing
		10.4.2 Microwave Remote Sensing
		10.4.3 Altimetry
		10.4.4 Radio Echo Sounding
		10.4.5 Gravity Satellites
References