Introduction to Crowd Management: Managing Crowds in the Digital Era: Theory and Practice

Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
Acronyms
1 What Is Crowd Management?
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Objectives of This Chapter
	1.3 Definitions and Fundamental Principles of This Book
	1.4 Stakeholders and Crowd Information
	1.5 The Crowd Manager
	1.6 Structure of This Book
	Reference
2 Crowd Properties and Characteristics
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Objectives of This Chapter
	2.3 Qualitative Crowd Characteristics
		2.3.1 Types of Crowds and Classification
		2.3.2 Crowd Behavior Under Normal Conditions
		2.3.3 Crowd Behavior in Emergencies
	2.4 Quantitative Crowd Characteristics
		2.4.1 Speed, Density, and Flow
		2.4.2 Fundamental Diagram of Pedestrian Traffic: Theory and Limitations
		2.4.3 Level of Service (LOS)
	References
3 Analysis of Past Crowd Accidents
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Objectives of This Chapter
	3.3 Crowd Incident Mechanisms
		3.3.1 Crowd Domino
		3.3.2 Crowd Avalanche
	3.4 Classification and Analysis of Crowd Incidents
		3.4.1 Causality of Crowd Incidents
		3.4.2 External Factors (Environmental)
		3.4.3 Internal Factors (Crowd Intrinsic)
	3.5 Role of Crowd Management
	References
4 Pedestrian and Crowd Sensing Principles and Technologies
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Objectives of This Chapter
	4.3 Computer Vision
		4.3.1 Detection and Tracking
		4.3.2 Optical Flow
		4.3.3 Density Estimation
		4.3.4 Advantages/Disadvantages
	4.4 Distance Sensors
		4.4.1 Advantages/Disadvantages
	4.5 Localization Technologies (GPS, Indoor  Positioning, Etc.)
		4.5.1 Direct and Indirect User Involvement
		4.5.2 Advantages/Disadvantages
	4.6 Instrumented Detection
		4.6.1 Mobile Network Antennas
		4.6.2 Bluetooth, WiFi, and RFID Tags
		4.6.3 Advantages/Disadvantages
	4.7 Alternative Methods
		4.7.1 Gate/Transit Counting
		4.7.2 Manual Counting
		4.7.3 Estimation by Total Mass
		4.7.4 Thermocamera
		4.7.5 Inertial Sensors
		4.7.6 Chemosensors
		4.7.7 Pressure Sensors
	4.8 Sensing Method Selection and Comparison
		4.8.1 Sensing Accuracy
	4.9 Future and Emerging Trends in Sensing Technology
		4.9.1 Detection of Complex Patterns by Machine-Learning Algorithms
		4.9.2 Sensor Fusion
		4.9.3 Emotional State and Mood Detection
	References
5 Crowd Simulators: Computational Methods, Product Selection, and Visualization
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Objectives of This Chapter
	5.3 Types of Crowd Simulators and Space Representation
		5.3.1 Macroscopic Models
		5.3.2 Network Models
		5.3.3 Microscopic Models
	5.4 State-of-the-Art Modeling Approaches
		5.4.1 The Behavioral Levels and Multiscale Simulation
		5.4.2 Procedural Steps in Setting up a Simulation Scenario
		5.4.3 Concluding Remarks
	5.5 Typical Models Employed in Crowd Simulation
		5.5.1 Cellular Automata
		5.5.2 Social Force Model
		5.5.3 Network Models
		5.5.4 Alternative Approaches
	5.6 Simulator Selection and Comparison
		5.6.1 Selection Criteria and Relevance
		5.6.2 Commercial Software, Code Development, or Outsourcing?
		5.6.3 Choosing a Commercial Software
	5.7 Evaluation and Improvement of Simulation Results
		5.7.1 Evaluation of Simulated Motion
		5.7.2 Improving Simulation Results
	5.8 Result Visualization
	References
6 Crowd Control Methods: Established and Future Practices
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Objectives of This Chapter
	6.3 Information Management—Laying the Fundamentals for an Effective Crowd Control
		6.3.1 Static Information Provision: Wayfinding and Its Role in Crowd Control
		6.3.2 Dynamic Information Provision: Adding the Time Variable to Wayfinding
		6.3.3 Communicating with the Crowd: Efficiently Adapting Style and Content
	6.4 Physical Methods to Safely Steer Crowds—Potentials and Limitations
		6.4.1 Crowd Control Barriers (Barricades)
		6.4.2 Waiting Lines/Queuing Systems
		6.4.3 Access Gates and Ticket Control
		6.4.4 Flow Control and Bottleneck Effect
		6.4.5 Dynamic Routing and Guidance Staff
	6.5 The ``Nudge'' Approach in Crowd Control
	6.6 The ``Self-Regulation'' Approach
	References
7 Risk Management: From Situational Awareness to Crowd Control
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Objectives of This Chapter
	7.3 Risk Definition and Approach
	7.4 A Framework for Risk Management in Crowds
		7.4.1 Off-Site Risk Management
		7.4.2 On-Site Risk Management
	7.5 Risk Assessment
		7.5.1 General Principles
		7.5.2 Risk Identification
		7.5.3 Risk Analysis
		7.5.4 Risk Evaluation
	7.6 Limitations and Best Practices in Risk Assessment
		7.6.1 Risk Assessment in Case of Sporadic Information
		7.6.2 Risk Assessment Using Multiple Quantities
		7.6.3 Choice of Numerical Values
		7.6.4 Best Practices and Future Trends
		7.6.5 Taking Special Conditions into Account
		7.6.6 Risk Assessment Diversification
		7.6.7 Risk Assessment Accounting for Secondary Elements
	7.7 From Risk Assessment to Crowd Control
	References
8 Planning of Mass Gatherings  and Large Events
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Objectives of This Chapter
	8.3 Planning Approach
	8.4 Setting Conditions and Operating Modes
		8.4.1 Conditions
		8.4.2 Operating Modes
	8.5 Risk Assessment for Normal Operation
		8.5.1 Important Points to Check
	8.6 Risk Assessment for Abnormal Operations
		8.6.1 Risk Factors
	8.7 From Planning to On-Site Operation
	References
9 Conclusion: The Seven Knows
Appendix A Historical List of Crowd Incidents
References
Appendix  Glossary
Index