Introduction to Biology (Zambak)

I. SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC METHOD   . 6
A. WHAT IS SCIENCE  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
B. HOW DOES A SCIENTIFIC 
PROBLEM ARISE? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
C. THE STAGES OF THE
SCIENTIFIC METHOD  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1. Definition of the Problem  . . . . . . . 7
2. Making Observations  . . . . . . . . . . 7
3. Gathering Data  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4. Generating a Hypothesis  . . . . . . . 8
5. Making Predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
6. Examination of the Hypothesis
(Experimentation)  . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
7. Interpretation of Results . . . . . . . . 8
8. Theory  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
9. Law  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
D. AN EXAMPLE OF THE
SCIENTIFIC METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
II. BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE . . . . . . . . . . 11
A. THE BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY  . . . . . . 13 
1. Zoology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2. Botany  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3. Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4. Morphology  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5. Histology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6. Physiology  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7. Embryology  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 
8. Cytology: “Cell Biology” . . . . . . . .14 
9. Taxonomy  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
10. Ecology  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
11. Genetics       . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
III. INSTRUMENTS USED IN 
THE BIOLOGY LABORATORY  . . . . 16
A. MICROSCOPE  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1. Compound (Light) Microscope  . . 16
B. SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS  . . . . . . . 17
C. GLASSWARE  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
D. REAGENTS (Indicators)  . . . . . . . . . . 18
IV. CELLULAR ORGANIZATION . . . . . . 20
A. CELLULAR ORGANIZATION  . . . . . . . . 20
B. MULTICELLULAR ORGANIZATION  . . . . 22
C. LIFE AND LIVING ORGANISMS . . . . . . 23
1. Chemical Makeup  . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2. Organization  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3. Energy Production (Cellular
Respiration)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4. Nutrition  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5. Growth  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6. Movement  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7. Irritability “Sensitivity”  . . . . . . . . 25
8. Reproduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
9. Homeostasis (Internal Balance) . . 25
10. Death   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
V. BODY STRUCTURE 
IN LIVING ORGANISMS . . . . . . . . . 27
1. BODY STRUCTURE IN MICROORGAN-
ISMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2. BODY STRUCTURE IN FUNGI  . . . . 28 
3. PLANT BODY STRUCTURES  . . . . 29
4. BODY SYSTEMS IN ANIMALS  . . . . 32
A. REGULATORY SYSTEMS  . . . . . . . . . . 32
1. The Endocrine System . . . . . . . . 32
2. Nervous System   . . . . . . . . . . . 33
B. SENSORY RECEPTION 
(The Sense Organs)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1. Photoreceptors  . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2. Chemoreceptors  . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3. Mechanoreceptors  . . . . . . . . . . . 36
C. TRANSPORT SYSTEM 
(Circulatory System)  . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
1. Open circulatory system (OCS)  . 37
2. Closed circulatory system (CCS)  .37
D. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . 38
E. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM   . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
F. EXCRETORY SYSTEM   . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
G. LOCOMOTION IN ANIMALS  . . . . . . . . 42
VI. CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS
“SYSTEMATICS”  . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
A. CLASSIFICATION  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
B. CLASSIFICATION OF 
LIVING THINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
C. VIRUSES  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
D. RICKETTSIAS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
VII. KINGDOM MONERA  . . . . . . . . . . 54
A. BACTERIA  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
1. Structure of bacteria  . . . . . . . . . 54
2. Classification of bacteria  . . . . . . 55
3. Reproduction In Bacteria  . . . . . . 58
4. Endospore Formation in Bacteria . 59
B. Blue Green Algae  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
VIII. KINGDOM PROTISTA  . . . . . . . . . 62
A. ANIMAL-LIKE PROTISTS 
(PROTOZOA)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
1. Rhizopoda 
(Root-footed protozoa) . . . . . . . . 63
2. Foraminifera   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3. Actinopoda 
(Ray animalcules)  . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4. Zoomastigina   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5. Ciliophora (Ciliates)  . . . . . . . . . . 64
6. Apicomplexa  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
B. PLANT-LIKE PROTISTS  . . . . . . . . . . . 64
1. Dinoflagellata   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2. Bacillariophyta (Diatoms)  . . . . . . 65
3. Euglenophyta  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4. Chlorophyta (Green Algae)  . . . . . 67
5. Rhodophyta (Red algae)  . . . . . . 70
6. Phaeophyta (Brown algae)  . . . . . 70
C. FUNGI LIKE PROTISTS . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
1. Myxomycota  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2. Oomycota   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
IX. KINGDOM FUNGI . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
A. FUNGI   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
1. Zygomycota (Molds)  . . . . . . . . . 74
2. Ascomycota 
(Ascomycetes,sac Fungi)  . . . . . . 76
3. Basidiomycota (Club Fungi)  . . . . 77
4. Deuteromycota   . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
B. LICHENS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
X. KINGDOM PLANTAE (PLANTS) . . . . 81
A. SEEDLESS PLANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
1. Bryophyta (Land Mosses)  . . . . . . 81
2. Pteridophyta (Ferns)  . . . . . . . . . 82
B. SEED PLANTS   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
1. Gymnospermae  . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2. Angiospermae (Flowering plants) 86
2.1. Monocotyledone . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.2. Dicotyledones  . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
XI. KINGDOM ANIMALAE (ANIMALS)  . 92
A. CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS . . . . . . 92
B. ANIMAL KINGDOM  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
1. Porifera (Sponges)  . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2. Cnidaria (Coelenterates)  . . . . . . . 95
3. Ctenophora (Comb jellies)  . . . . . 97
4. Platyhelminthes 
(Flat worms, Helmints) . . . . . . . . 97
5. Nemertea (Nemertins)  . . . . . . . 100
6. Nematoda (Round worms)  . . . . 100
7. Rotifera 
(Rotifers:Wheel animals)  . . . . . 101
8. Mollusca  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
9. Annelida(Annelids)  . . . . . . . . . . 102
10. Arthropoda  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
11. Echinodermata 
(Spiny-skinned)  . . . . . . . . . . . 105
12. Chordata (Chordates)  . . . . . . . 105