International Handbook on Education Development in the Asia-Pacific

Preface
	Background
	Special Features of the Handbook
	Clusters and Sections
Contents
About the Editors
Section Editors
Contributors
Trends and Issues
	Education Development in the Asia-Pacific
	Comparative Studies in the Asia-Pacific
	Understanding Asian-Pacific Education Through Traditional Religious Lens
	Research Asia Using Asia as ``Method´´
	Increased Online Learning: A New Normal or Old Tradition in the Asia-Pacific?
	Globalization and Education
	Education for International Understanding
	Shadow Education
	Homeschooling
	Conclusion
	1 Progress, Achievements, and Setbacks in Basic Education for All, 2000-2020: A Focus on the Asia-Pacific
		Introduction
		Background: Shifting International Discourse
		Trends in Pre-primary to Secondary Education, 2000-2020
		Early Childhood Care and Education
		Access to Primary Education
		Completion of Primary and Secondary Education
		Educational Inequalities
		Privatization of Education
		Learning Outcomes and Global Learning Metrics
		The Impact of Covid-19 on Educational Progress
		Conclusion
		References
	2 Comparative Education in Asia: Reflections on an Intellectual Field
		Introduction
		Current State of Comparative Education in Asia
			University Courses and Programs
			Professional Societies of Comparative Education
			Comparative Education Research Centers and Scholarly Networks in Asia
		Dynamics of an Intellectual Field
		CERC History and Achievements
		CERC´s Logic of Practice
			Foundational Era and Pre-1997 Handover
			Post-Foundational Era
		Changing Times, Changing Territories
		Reflections on Comparative Education
		References
	3 Education Traditions and Futures with Asian Roots
		Introduction: The Interplay of Education, Spirituality, and Sustainability
		The Significance of Religious Perspectives in Understanding Asian Trends in Education
		Sustainability Science
		Theology and Philosophy
		Education and Comparative Education
		Insights from Asian Religions and Philosophies Underlying the Educational Ideals
			Being a Good Person as the Foundation for a Good Citizen
			The Asian ``Self´´ as an Individual Citizen
			Educability for All and Perfectibility for All
			The Relationalistic Perspective of the Individual and the Collectivity
			Individualism or Individuality?
			Spiritual Development
		Conclusion: The Significance of a Religious Lens in Understanding Asian Perspectives of Education and Sustainable Development
		References
	4 Education Research in Asia as ``Method´´
		Introduction
		The Idea of ``Asia as Method´´
			Key Concepts: Translation, Base Entity, and Inter-Referencing
				Translation
				Base Entity
				Inter-Referencing
		Enactment of ``Asia as Method´´ in Different Fields of Studies
			Education
				Childhood and Educational Studies
				Curriculum and Pedagogy
				Teacher Training, Development, and Research
			Cultural Studies
			Science and Technology
			Film/Literature/Music/Legal Studies
		Methodology
		Findings and Discussions
			Building Up a New Research Imagination Beyond the East and West Dichotomy
			Repositioning Researcher´s Subjectivity and Identifications
			Methodological Hesitation
		Conclusion
		References
	5 Rethinking Education for the New Normal: Formal Versus Informal and Nonformal Education and Lifelong Learning
		Introduction
		Historical Context: Nonformal Education and the Rise of Schooling
			Early Days: Traditional and Nonformal Education
			The Rise of Schooling
			Universal Schooling: Aims and Impacts
		Beyond Schools: New Technologies and the Rise of Online, Lifelong, and Informal Learning
			Rethinking the Place of Schools
			Online Learning: Enthusiasm and Skepticism
			Lifelong Learning: Opportunities and Challenges
		Conclusion
		References
	6 Rethinking the Impact of Globalization on Education in the Asia-Pacific
		Introduction
		Hegemonic Globalization
		Hong Kong and the Politics of Post-Coloniality
		Shanghai and the Promotion of Another Globalization
		Singapore and the Mediations of a Strong State
		Globalization as Exception
		Conclusion
		References
	7 Education for Peace and International Understanding in the Asia-Pacific: Trends and Issues
		Introduction
			Defining EIU and Peace Education
			Contextual Changes Since 2001
		EIU Across Educational Contexts of the Asia-Pacific
			Geographical Distribution
				Northeast Asia
					China
					Japan
					South Korea
					Taiwan
				Southeast Asia
					Indonesia
					Myanmar
					Philippines
				The Pacific
					Australia
					New Zealand
					Solomon Islands/Papua New Guinea
		Key Themes from the Globe and the Asia-Pacific
			Education in Conflict-Affected Contexts
			Identity Development/Cultural Pluralism
			Dialogue and Pedagogy
			Postcolonial Peace and Understanding
		Discussion and New Directions
		Conclusion
		Appendix
		References
	8 Shadow Education in Asia and the Pacific: Features and Implications of Private Supplementary Tutoring
		Introduction
		Mapping the Landscape
			The Scale of Shadow Education
			Intensity and Demographic Variations
			Subjects and Modes
		Demand and Supply
			Drivers of Demand
			Diversity of Supply
		Impact and Implications
			Academic Achievement
			Broader Skills and Values
			Efficiencies and Inefficiencies
			Inequalities and Social Cohesion
			Regulations for Shadow Education
		Conclusion
		References
	9 Homeschooling in Asian Countries in Terms of Law, Tradition, and Habitus
		Introduction
		Analytical Framework for Meta-analysis
		Research Results
			Law
				Compulsory Schooling vs Compulsory Education
				Public Support System for Non-formal Education or Else
			Tradition
				Confucianism
				Christianity
				Islam
			Habitus
				Teaching Style: Liberalism
				Teaching Curriculum: Conservatism
		Conclusions
		References
Citizenship, Moral, and Values Education
	10 Rethinking Lifelong Citizenship Education: Tendencies and Tensions in East Asian Contexts
		Introduction
		Citizenship and Related Forms of Education
		Developments and Differences in East Asian Contexts
			Top-Down Ideological Control: China
			The Role of NGOs: Hong Kong
			The Role of Community Universities: Taiwan
			The Role of Grassroots Groups: Japan
		Tensions Between Citizenship Education and Lifelong Learning
		Conclusion: Prospects and Challenges
		References
	11 Nationalism, Patriotism, and Education for Patriotic Citizens in Mainland China
		Introduction
		Conceptual Clarification: Zuqun, Minzu, and Nation
		Nationalism and Patriotism in the Chinese Context
			Intellectual Sources of Chinese Nationalism
			From Chinese Nationalism to Chinese Patriotism
		Patriotic Education Campaign
			Launching of the Campaign
			The Narrative of Chinese Dream
			The 2019 Outline
		State-Led Nationalism/Patriotism in Education
		The National-Global Tensions
		Conclusion
		References
	12 Constructing Cultural Identity Through Heritage Education: The Case of Central China
		Introduction
		Background: The Linkage Between Heritage Education and Cultural Identity
		Central China: A Region Where Chinese Civilization Originated
		Heritage Education for Constructing Cultural Identity of Youngsters
		Patriotic Education
		Ideology and Moral Education
		Ideological and Political Education (Ke Cheng Si Zheng)
		Diligence Education
		Heritage Education for Cultural and Inter-cultural Citizenship Education
		Conclusion
		References
	13 Education and Identity in Hong Kong: The ``Moral and National Education´´ Subject Storm
		Introduction: Identity and Politics
		Background
		Contentious MNE Policy
		Claims of the Seven Major Groups: What Was Opposed and Why?
			Students As ``Here and Now´´ Citizens Asking to Participate and Change Society
			Parents As Desperate Guardians of Their Children
			Teaching Professionals and the Defense of Professional Autonomy
			Social Workers As Advocates of Social Justice
			The Neglected Voice of Ethnic Minorities
			Christians As Believers in a Higher Order and People of the Heavenly Kingdom
			Supporters of Democratic Movements in China and Critical Patriotism
		Complexity of Civic Identity: Common Ground and Specific Concerns
		Conclusion
		References
	14 Identity Grafting for Marginal Citizens: A Case Study of the Second-Generation Migrant Workers in Beijing
		The Growth of International Migration and Intercultural Identities
		Intercultural Identities and Marginal Citizenship
		Marginal Citizenship and Identity Grafting
		The Growing Phenomenon of ``Floating People´´ in China
		The Second Generation of Migrant Workers
		``Grafting´´: A Tool of Constructing New Identity
			Repressive Type
			Born-Again Type
			Integrative Type
			Situational Type
		Research Methodology
		Selection of the Research Location
		Selection of the Research Participants
		Data Collection and Data Analysis
		The Narratives of Findings
		Imitation as Identity Repression
		Recombined Experiences to Form Integrated Identity
		Indignation and Developing Born-Again Citizens
		Identity Integration Efforts and Seeking Opportunities for Developing Situational Identities
		Discussion
		Conclusion: Implications for Identity Grafting for Marginal Citizens
		References
	15 Global Citizenship Education in Asia: Moving Towards Decolonization
		Introduction
		An Analytical Framework for School-Based GCE in Asia
			Three Initial Lenses
			Multiplying Frames of Reference
				Perspective - In What Ways Do School-Level Curriculum and Practice Reflect Different Worldviews?
				Power - In What Ways Do School-Level Global curriculum and Practice Attend to Differentials of Power in and Across Societies?
				Purpose - What Are the Aims of School-Level Curriculum and Practice of Global Civic Education? What Are the Justifications for...
			Interpretive: Empathetic Entrepreneurs
				Building Entrepreneurial Mindsets
				Empathetic Action
			Narrative: Humanitarian Protagonists
				Fostering Humanitarian Identities
				Prescribed Protagonism
			Critical: Postcolonial Activists
				Praxis-Based Globalism
				Political Activism
		Discussion and Conclusion
			Persistent Colonial Metanarratives in GCE
			Teaching Toward Decolonial Approaches to GCE
		References
	16 Global Citizenship in Japanese Higher Education: Toward an Ethical Pedagogical Framework for Humanity Empowerment, Critical...
		Introduction
		Internationalization of the Curriculum, Global Citizenship, and Global Citizenship Education in Japan
			Internationalization of the Curriculum
			Global Citizenship
			Global Citizenship Education
		Theoretical Framework for the Study: Ethical Global Citizenship Education
			Empowering Humanity
			Critical Moral Consciousness
			Autonomy and Carefulness
		Theme 1: GCE Must Foster Creative Students Who Comprehend, Analyze, and Solve Local and Global Issues
		Theme 2: GCE Must Extend Students´ Learning Experience Beyond the Classroom
		Theme 3: GCE Must Help Students Recognize the Interconnectedness of Human Lives
		Proposing an Ethical Pedagogical Framework for GCE Based on Humanity Empowerment, Critical Moral Consciousness, Autonomy, and ...
		Concluding Reflections
		References
	17 Moral and Values Development for Early Childhood Education in Singapore
		Introduction
		Moral and Values Development Through Student Well-Being
			Moral and Values Development
			Student Well-Being
			Moral/Values Development and Student Well-Being
		National Frameworks for Early Childhood Education in Singapore
		Character and Citizenship Education in Singapore
		Linking CCE to Early Childhood Education
			Core Values
			Social-Emotional Competencies
			Civic Literacy, Global Awareness, and Cross-Cultural Skills
		Implications for Early Childhood Education
		Conclusion
		References
Lifelong Learning and Twenty-First-Century Competences
	18 Pawn or Agent in the Lifelong Learning Agenda
		Introduction
		Human Capital Framing of Lifelong Learning
		Lifelong Learning as Social Practice
		From Skills to Capabilities
		Capability and Learning
		Designing Intentional Learning for Lifelong Learning
		Implications for Institutions, Employers, and Government
		Conclusion
		References
	19 The Future of Expertise: From Stepwise Domain Upskilling to Multifaceted Mastery
		Introduction
		Background Literature
		Empirical Illustrations
			The Distribution of Expertise Between People
				Interdisciplinary Expertise
				Multi-Generational Expertise
			The Distribution of Expertise Between People and Technology
				Understanding the Interplay Between Technology and Competencies
				The Importance of ``Feeling the Ground´´
		Conclusions
		References
	20 The Multiple Meanings of Creativity in Lifelong Learning Research
		Introduction
		Theories of Creativity
		Creativity Research
		Creativity and Education
		Creativity and Lifelong Learning
		Exploring Creativity Through the Writings of Four Journals
		Definitions of Creativity
		Empowerment and Autonomy
		Implications: Understanding the Process of Creativity in Different Educational Contexts
		Cultural Construction of Creativity
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	21 Filipino Women´s Lifelong Learning and Twenty-First-Century Competencies
		Introduction
		Achievements of Filipino Women
			Women´s Movement in the Philippines
			Gender Mainstreaming and Gender and Development
				Gains Based on Beijing Platform for Action Framework +25 (BPfA+25)
				Sustainable Development Goal No. 5
				Institutional Mechanisms and Governance
				Gender Mainstreaming Tools
		Filipino Women´s Lifelong Learning with the Twenty-First Century Competencies
			Learning to Know (UNESCO - Delor´s Report) and Learning and Innovation Skills (Partnership Twenty-First Century Skills)
			Interacting in Socially Heterogeneous Groups (OECD), Learning to Do, and Learning to Live Together (UNESCO - Delor´s Report) a...
			Using Tools Interactively (OECD), Learning to Do (UNESCO - Delor´s Report), Information, Media, and Technology Skills (Partner...
			Acting Autonomously (OECD), Learning to Be (UNESCO - Delors Report), and Life and Career Skills (Partnership Twenty-First Cent...
		Future Challenges
		Conclusions
		References
	22 Reimagining and Revitalizing Lifelong Learning in Brunei for a Digital Age
		Introduction
		Lifelong Learning
		Lifelong Learning Provisions in Brunei
			Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET)
				Current TVET Provisions
				Initial TVET Programs
				Continuing Education and Training (CET)
			Establishment of Lifelong Learning Centre (L3C)
		An Overview of Brunei´s Lifelong Learning Through the Lens of Delor´s Four Pillars
		How Are Future Skills Agenda Incorporated in the Lifelong Learning Provisions in Brunei?
		A Commentary: Promoting Lifelong Learning in Brunei for the Digital Era
			Shifting the TVET Paradigm with New Models for Lifelong Learning in the Digital Era
			Conclusion: Advancing a Way of Understanding Lifelong Learning by Generating Different and Better Questions
		References
	23 The Current and Future State of Lifelong Education in the Republic of Korea
		Introduction
		Background and Current Status of Lifelong Education in Korea
			Background of Korean Society
			Current Status of Lifelong Education in Korea
				Participation Rate in Lifelong Education
				The Lifelong Education Act and Administrative Systems for Lifelong Education
				Key Policies Related to Lifelong Education
		Challenges and Future Orientation
			Promising Practical Learning Rights for all People
			Creating Lifelong Education - Employment - Welfare Virtuous Cycle
			Respnding to Demographic Changes
		Conclusion
		References
	24 Recruitment and Training in Japanese SMEs: A Case Study Concerning Lifelong Learning in the Manufacturing Industry at the T...
		Introduction
		Specific Characteristics of the Japanese Transition System
		State of Research: Recruitment and Training in the Manufacturing Sector
		Methodology
		Survey Results
			Outline of Recruitment and Hiring Criteria
			Initial Training After Entering the Company
		Discussion: Outcomes and Challenges
		Conclusion
		References
	25 Literacy and Lifelong Learning in the Twenty-First Century: Development of Multilingualism and Multiliteracies in ASEAN
		Introduction
		Language and Language-in-Education Policies in ASEAN
		Conclusion
		References
Language and Education
	Introduction
	26 Language-in-Education Policy in the Asia-Pacific Region
		Introduction
		Language-in-Education Policy and Nation-Building
		Medium of Instruction Policies and Local Languages
		The Place of English
		Conclusion and Future Directions
		References
	27 English in General Education: Current Issues and Possible Solutions
		Introduction
		English in Asia
		English in Basic Education - Examples
		English as an Asian Language?
		Teaching English as a Lingua Franca
		Conclusion
		References
	28 The Learning of National and Local Languages in Asia-Pacific Countries
		Introduction
		Language-in-Education Policy
		South Asia: The Case of India
		East Asia: The Case of Mainland China
		Southeast Asia: The Case of Thailand
		Oceania: The Case of Fiji
		Discussion
		The Learning of Non-English National Language(s) as a Nation Building Strategy
		The Learning of Local Language(s) Is Often Neglected
		The Learning of English as a National or Foreign Language
		Conclusions and Future Directions
		References
	29 Bilingualism and Multilingualism in Classrooms in Hong Kong and Singapore: Code-Switching and Translanguaging
		Introduction
		Translanguaging and Translanguaging Practices
		Code-Switching (CS) and Translanguaging
		Language Ecology and Language Policy in Hong Kong and Singapore
			Hong Kong
			Singapore
		Translanguaging Practices in Classrooms
			Hong Kong
			Singapore
		Conclusion
		References
	30 Language-in-Education and Sociology of Resilience for Child (Im)migrants: The Cases of India, China, and Australia
		Introduction
		The Problematic Linguistic Landscape of the Asia-Pacific Region
		A Bourdieusian Approach to Language-in-Education
			Language-in-Education and Internal Migration: The Case of Migrant Children in India
		Language-in-Education and Internal Migration: The Case of Floating Children in China
		Language-in-Education: The Case of Immigrant Children in Australia
		Reshaping the Space of Language-in-Education Through Sociology of Resilience
		Conclusion
		References
	31 Empowering Students Through Cosmopolitan Literacies: Pedagogical Examples from Classrooms in Confucian Heritage Cultures
		Introduction
		Conceptualizing Cosmopolitanism: Perspectives from the ``East´´ and ``West´´
		Cosmopolitan Literacies: Pedagogical Principles and Examples from Schools in Confucian Heritage Cultures
			Ethical Orientation
			Transnational Attunement
			Critical Engagement
			Transformative Action
		Conclusion: The Limits of Cosmopolitan Literacies and Possibilities for the Future
		References
	32 Transcending Anglocentric Ideologies of English Language Teaching in Asia: Global Englishes-Informed Policy and Practice
		Introduction
		Global Englishes and Its Related Concepts
		Global Englishes in Asia
		Current Policies and Practices in English Language Education in Asia
		Global Englishes Approaches to English Language Education
		Conclusion and Future Research
		References
	33 Research on English-Medium Instruction in the Asia-Pacific: Trends, Foci, Challenges, and Strategies
		Introduction
		Publication Trends
		Research Foci
			Research on Perceptions of EMI
			Research on EMI Impacts
			Research on EMI Practices
			Research on EMI Policies
			Research on EMI Challenges and Strategies
			Research on EMI Instructor Professional Development
			Research on the Roles of English and Other Languages in EMI
			Research on Support Systems for EMI
		Challenges and Issues in EMI Research
		Conclusion
		References
	34 Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) in Japanese EFL Contexts
		Introduction
		English Language Learning and Teaching in Japan
		Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT)
		Research into TBLT in Japan
		Recent Developments
			TBLT and the Multilingual Turn
			Technology-Mediation and TBLT
		Issues in the Implementation of TBLT
		Conclusion
		References
	35 Chinese-Language Education in Australia and New Zealand
		Introduction
		The Conceptual Framework
		Demographic Shifts: Expanding Communities, Diverse Needs
		Chinese as a Trade Language: Strong Policy, Weak Implementation
		Statistics of Chinese-Language Programs
		Colonial Legacy and Geopolitical Tensions
		Conclusion
		Future Research Directions
		References
	36 Modern Language Education Programs in Asia and Pacific Countries
		Introduction
		Northeast Asia
			China
			South Korea
			Japan
			Comments
		Southeast Asia
			Singapore
			The Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam
			Laos and Myanmar
			Comments
		Oceania
			Australia
			New Zealand
			Comments
		Conclusion
		References
	37 Language Education and Teacher Awareness
		Introduction
		Language Awareness
		Teacher Language Awareness
		Subject Teachers´ Language Awareness
		Subject Teachers´ Teacher Language Awareness: An Exploratory Study
			Subject Teachers´ Language-Related Pedagogical Practice
			Subject Teachers´ TLA and Pedagogical Practices
		Conclusion
		References
	38 Language Assessment Literacy of EFL Teachers in East Asia: From Teachers´ Conceptions of Language Assessment to Their Pract...
		Introduction
		Educational Assessment in East Asia
		Defining Language Assessment Literacy
		Researching Language Assessment Literacy in East Asia
			Language Assessment Literacy: From Theoretical Perspectives
			Language Assessment Literacy in Practice
				What Do Teachers Know about Language Assessment?
				How Can Teachers Improve Their LAL?
		Discussion and Conclusion
		References
	39 The Association Between Educational Systems and Reading Literacy Performance in PISA Across the Asia-Pacific Region and Cou...
		Introduction
		Reading Literacy in the Asia-Pacific Region and Countries
			Individual-Level Factors Influencing Students´ Reading Literacy
			Class-Level Factors Influencing Students´ Reading Literacy
			School-Level Factors Influencing Students´ Reading Literacy
		Future Directions and Conclusions
		References
The Future of Education, Employability, and Labor Markets in the Asia-Pacific
	40 The Future of Education, Employability, and Work in the Asia-Pacific
		Introduction
		Theoretical Understandings of Employability in the Fourth Industrial Revolution
			Labor Scarcity View of Employability
			Job Scarcity View of Employability
		Employability and the Future of Work in the Asia-Pacific: Restratification of Knowledge Work?
		Implications and Conclusion
		References
	41 Massification and Privatization of Higher Education in East Asia
		Introduction
		Massification of Higher Education in East Asia
		Graduate Employment and Underemployment
		Graduate Unemployment/Underemployment: Critical Reflections
			Analysis from the Sociological Perspective
			Analysis from the Political Economic Perspective
		Conclusion
		References
	42 Transitions Between Education and Employment in the Twenty-First Century: A View from the Asia-Pacific
		Introduction
		Expansion of Education in Asia
		Employment Across the Asia-Pacific Region
		Implications of the Increasing Complexity of Transitions
		Conclusions
		References
	43 The Expansion of Postgraduate Degrees and Its Labor Market Consequences in East Asia
		Introduction
		Expansion of Postgraduate Degrees: Theoretical Lens
		Master´s Education and the Labor Market in East Asia
		The Mismatch Between Postgraduate Education and the Labor Market
		The Future World of Work and Master´s Degrees
		Conclusion
		References
	44 The Future of ``Applied´´ Education, Employability, and the Labor Market in China
		Introduction
			Theories on the Duality of Employability and Overeducation
		National Context: Industrial Structures and Segmented Labor Markets
			The Growing of Tertiary Industry
			The Rise of Flexible Employment in Commercial and Service Industries
		Divergent Employment Destinations Among College Graduates
			Contrasting Patterns of Employment Between Different Tiers of Graduates
			An Explanation for the Divergent Choice
		Policy Reform and the Shift Toward Applied Education
			National Policy Guidelines for Developing Applied Education at Provincial Level
			The Advantages of Elite Universities in Collaborating with Leading Employers
			Institutional Constraints on Applied Colleges in Setting Up Modern Industrial Academies
		Conclusion
		References
	45 Education, Vocational Training, and Labor Markets in Vietnam: Mutual Distrust and the Supply-Side Approach
		Introduction
		Vietnamese TVET Policies and Underlying Assumptions
		The Research
		General Perceptions of Educators on Skill Mismatch
		Challenges of Current TVET Policies: Flaws in the Supply-Side Approach
			Lack of Dynamism in Skill Demand
			Challenges for Market-Based Reform Strategies
		A Consequence of the Supply-Side Approach: Mutual Distrust
		Conclusion
		References
	46 Graduate Employability and University-Enterprise Collaboration in Vietnam
		Introduction
		Graduate Employability and the Need for University-Enterprise Collaboration
		Skill Development Landscape in Vietnam
		Efforts to Enhance Graduate Employability
		Remaining Challenges
		Recommendations and Conclusion
		References
	47 Student Mobility, Employability, and Unlikely Education Destinations in Asia
		Introduction
		Student Mobilities Within Asia
			Unlikely Players in the Asian Education Market
			Capital Accumulation in Unlikely Destinations?
		Diverse Pathways to Employability
			Linguistic Capital
			Credentials for Further Movement
		Conclusion
		References
	48 Structural Similarities of Formal Vocational Education Systems in Low- and Middle-Income Countries
		Introduction
		Comparing Vocational Education and Training Systems
		Comparative VET in Developing Countries
		Similarities in the Formal VET Systems of the Six Countries
			Nature and Extent of Specialization
			Site/s of Training
			Status
			Reforms
		Explaining the Similarities
		Conclusion
		References
	49 Beyond Economic Goals for STEM Education Development in the Asia-Pacific
		Introduction
		The Rhetoric of STEM for Economic Development
		The Reality of STEM for Economic Development
		Side Effects of STEM and Economic Development
		Education and Society Through the Case of Engineering
		Technology and Schools as a Case of Technological Determinism
		Education for the Economy?
		Embracing Utopianism: STEM as an Opportunity
		Conclusion
		References
Future of Work, Adult Learning, and Design of Learning
	50 Employee-Driven Innovations: Zones of Initiation, Enactment, and Learning
		Future Work, Workers, and Innovations
			Employee-Driven Innovations
		Innovative Practices in Singaporean Small- to Medium-Sized Enterprise
			Investigating Innovations at Work
			Innovations at Work
		Kinds of Innovation
		Zones of Innovations: Processes for Initiating, Endorsing, and Implementing
			Zones of Learning and Development Through Innovations
			Employee-Driven Innovations: Engagement, Zones of Discretion, and Learning
		References
	51 Workplace Hardship: Learning Entrepreneurial Identities
		Introduction
		Youth Work, Precarity, and Experiential Learning
		Entrepreneurial Identities and Learning in Youth Work
		Methods
		Hardship ``as´´ Learning
		Constructing Entrepreneurial Identities
		Alternative Identities
		Conclusions
		References
	52 Preparing Graduates for Cross-Country Labor Markets: The Role of Human and Social Capitals in Australia and Vietnam
		Employability and Its Different Perspectives
		Methodology
		Australia
			Human Capital
			Professional Skills
			Social Capital
		Vietnam
			Human Capital
			Professional Skills
			Social Capital
		Discussion and Conclusion
		References
	53 Recognition of Current and Prior Experience in Aotearoa New Zealand and the Role of Eportfolios
		Introduction
		Literature Overview
			The Aotearoa NZ Approach to RCC/RPL
			Records of Learning
			Alignment with Qualification Structures
			Role of Portfolios
		Questions Underpinning the Inquiry
		Inquiry Method
			Desk Study
			Email Questions for Institutions with RCC/RPL Section
			Survey of RCC/RPL Candidates
			Ethics
		Findings
			Aotearoa NZ Institutions Providing RCC/RPL
			RCC/RPL Processes
			Survey of Ara RCC/RPL Candidates
		Discussion
			Reasons for Engaging with RCC/RPL
			Enablers
			RCC/RPL Support Structures
			Eportfolios
		Recommendations
			Increased Visibility for the RCC/RPL Process
			Equity
		Conclusion
		References
	54 Curriculum 5.0 for the Twenty-First-Century Higher Education: A Way to Move Forward
		Introduction
		The Four Industrial Revolutions and Their Impact on the Educational System
			Fifth Industrial Revolution (5IR)
		Curriculum 5.0
		Features of Curriculum 5.0
			Systematically Aligns Learning Goals and Outcomes to Industry Demands Through Outcomes-Based Pedagogy
			Balances Emphasis on Process and Outcomes Using a Layered Curriculum
			Adopts Technology to Complement Human Creativity and Craftsmanship
			Taps on Developing Multiliteracies
			Promotes Self-Management Skills
			Adopts a Sociocultural Perspective
		Conclusion
		References
	55 A Performative View on the Role of Educative Curriculum Materials on Teacher Learning
		Introduction
		Teacher Learning for Transforming Classroom Practice Discourse: Assumptions to Explore
		The Role of Educative Curriculum Materials in Teacher Learning
		A Performative Notion of Teacher Learning
		Conclusions
		References
	56 A Task-Based Approach to Lifelong Learning, Well-Being, and Resilience in the Workplace of the Future
		Introduction
		Evidence for the Task Approach
		The Task Approach
			Chronology
			Procedure
			Limitations
		Case Study One: The Singapore Advanced Manufacturing, Financial Services, and Creative Advertising Sectors (2018)
		Case Study Two: Identifying New Tasks to Train for (2018)
		Case Study Three: Examining an Emerging Job of Automation Engineer (2019)
		Case Study Four: A Major Retail Company (2020/2021)
			Findings for Composite Frontline Retail Worker
			How Automation Impacts and Reconfigures Work
		Conclusion
		References
	57 Creating a Future to Be Proud of Through Teacher Workforce Development
		Introduction
		Decolonizing Practices in Education As a Way Forward
		Indigenous Pedagogies
		Teacher Education
		Strength-Based Approaches - Indigenous Resilience, Standpoint Theory, and Cultural Strength
		Changing Systems with Indigenous Voices and Decision-Making
		Conclusion
		References
	58 Localizing Teacher Professional Development at Scale Enabled by Professional Learning Communities: A Study of Teacher Learn...
		Introduction
		Background and Context - Teacher Learning Centers (TLCs) in Indonesia
		Teacher Learning Centers (TLCs) as Professional Learning Communities
		Research Questions
		Research Design and Methods
			Participants and Procedures
			Instruments Used
			Data Analysis
		Findings and Discussion
			TLCs Support Teachers with Quality TPD
			TLCs Support Teachers with Equitable and Efficient TPD
			Teachers Face Challenges of Applying TPD to Classroom Teaching
		Conclusion
		References
	59 Learning Agility and Learning Organizations in Disruptive Times
		Introduction
			New Business, Jobs, and Skills
			Challenges Faced by Employees and Organizations
		Conceptual Model in Study
			Attributes: Attitudes
			Learning Process
			Socio-cultural Environment
		Research Methods and Results
			Qualitative Study: Method
			Qualitative Study: Results
			Quantitative Study: Method
			Quantitative Study Results
				Growth Outcomes from One´s Learning Efforts
				Predictors of Growth Outcomes
		Discussion and Recommendations
			On Being a Learning Professional
			On Being a Learning Organization
		Limitations and Conclusions
		References
Higher Education
	60 Policies and Practices of Financing Higher Education in the Asia-Pacific Countries
		Introduction
		Financing Higher Education: Changing Trends and Practices
		Public Financing of Education
		Trends in Public Expenditure on Higher Education
			Public Expenditure on Higher Education Per Student
			Current and Capital Expenditure on Higher Education
		Household and Private Funding in Higher Education
		Expenditure on World Class Universities
		Public Funding of Research and Development
		Summary and Concluding Observations
		References
	61 University Ranking Games in East Asia: Triggers and Consequences
		Introduction
		East Asian Higher Education in the Rankings
		Gamification of the Rankings
		From Game Players to Game Changers
		Conclusion
		References
	62 Globalization and Internationalization of Higher Education in the Asia-Pacific
		Introduction
		Impact of Globalization
			Massification
			Governance
			The Market and Privatization
			World University Rankings
		Internationalization of Higher Education
		Concluding Thoughts
		References
	63 Private Higher Education in the Asia-Pacific Overview, Development, and Challenges
		Introduction
		Development of Private Higher Education
		Private Higher Education in the Asia-Pacific
		Factors Driving Private Higher Education in the Asia-Pacific
		Demographic Trends
		Regime Change, Laws, and Policies
			Cambodia
			China
			Myanmar
			Philippines
			Vietnam
		Internationalization and Regionalization of Higher Education
		Challenges and Conclusions
		References
	64 Higher Education in the Island States of Oceania
		Introduction
		The Foundations of Higher Education in the Island States of Oceania
		The Scope, Nature, and Achievements of Contemporary Provision
		Contemporary Challenges, Tensions, and New Priorities
		The Existential Challenges of Climate Change and the COVID Pandemic
		Conclusions
		References
	65 Higher Education in the Asia-Pacific: Rise or Renaissance- Evolution, Achievements, Challenges
		Introduction
		Asia Rising
		Origins and Development: The Past Haunts the Present
		Postcolonial Developments
		Achievements and Challenges
		Governance/Corruption
		Demographic Profile
		Privatization
		Regionalism
		Conclusion: Tradition and Change
		References
Learning and Human Development
	66 Development of the Learning Sciences: Theories, Pedagogies, and Technologies
		Introduction
		Phase 1: Emergence of the Learning Sciences (The Late 1980s-2000)
			Background
			New Learning Sciences Methodology
			Major Programs Using Design Experiments
			Learning Sciences and the Asia-Pacific Contribution
		Phase 2: Establishment of the Learning Sciences (2001-2010)
			Design-Based Research
			Cognitive Perspective: How People Learn
			Social Perspective: Learning in Activity
			Knowledge Building
			Productive Failure
		Phase 3: Flourishing of the Learning Sciences (2011-Current)
			Design-Based Implementation Research
			Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning
			Political Turn: Equity and Social Justice
		Discussion and Conclusion
		References
	67 Knowledge Building Model for Educational and Pedagogical Innovation and Cultural-Contextual Influences
		Introduction
		Knowledge Building Model: Theory, Pedagogy and Technology
			Theoretical Foundation
			Principle-Based Pedagogy
			Knowledge Forum Technology
			A Classroom Example of Knowledge Building
		Knowledge Building Research in the Asia-Pacific
			Fostering and Designing Knowledge Building Environments
			Examining Effects and Impact of Knowledge Building
			Teacher Learning, Professional Development and Systemic Change
			Technological and Methodological Advances
		Cultural and Contextual Influences: Barriers, Constraints and Opportunities
		Discussion: Key Themes, Contextual Influences and Research Direction
		Conclusion
		References
	68 Linguistic, Cognitive, Social, and Educational Perspectives on English Academic Literacy Development in the Asia-Pacific
		Introduction
		Theoretical Perspectives on English Academic Literacy Development
			Genre-Based Perspectives
			Cognitive and Metacognitive Perspectives
			Sociocultural and Sociopolitical Perspectives
			Social Constructivist Theories and Pedagogical Perspectives
		Methods and Procedures for Selection of Relevant Publications
		Major Themes from Different Theoretical Perspectives
			Emerging Integrated Genre-Based Theories and Approaches
			Cognitive Theories and Metacognitive Processes
			Sociocultural-Political Theories and Social Practices
			Social-Constructivist Theories and Collaborative Assessment Approach
		Discussion: Implications and Future Directions
			Theoretical Implications
			Methodological Implications
			Educational Implications
		Conclusion
		References
	69 Designing Problem-Solving for Meaningful Learning: A Discussion of the Asia-Pacific Research
		Introduction
		Understanding Problems and Problem-Solving: Different Types of Problems
		Designing Problem-Solving: Dimensions of Problem-Solving
			Intentional Learning
			Cognitively Challenging Problems
			Epistemological Beliefs
			Metacognition
		Conclusion
		References
	70 Learning Analytics for Learning: Emerging International Trends and Case Studies from the Asia-Pacific
		Introduction
		Review of Recent Development Towards Formulating a Framework of Learning Analytics
			Foundational Lenses of Learning Analytics Applications: Data-Centric to Theory-Driven
			Visual Forms of Learning Analytics Feedback: Exploratory to Personalized
			Learning Indicators and Metrics: Performance Scores to Holistic Competencies
			Design Approach: Technical to Participatory Designs
			Function and Purpose: Descriptive to Predictive and Prescriptive Learning Analytics
			Data Modality: Unimodal to Multimodal Learning Analytics
			Ethics: Obscure to Trustworthy Use
			Towards a Framework of Learning Analytics
		Case Studies in the Asia-Pacific
			Case 1: Wikiglass: Supporting Collaborative Learning in Schools
			Case 2: My Groupwork Buddy (MGB) for Teamwork
			Case 3: Collaborative Video Annotation and Analytics Environment for Teacher Professional Development (CoVAAPD)
			Case 4: Discovering Effects of Background Music on Learning Through Multimodal Learning Analytics
		Discussion and Implications
		References
	71 Recontextualizing and Translating Twenty-First-Century Competencies into Curriculum
		Globalization, Educational and Curricular Initiatives, and Implementation
		Recontextualizing and Translating Twenty-First-Century Competencies into Curriculum
			Delineating Educational Purposes in Terms of Competency-Oriented Outcomes
			Infusing Competencies into Syllabus Documents
		Issues and Problems
			Framing Educational Purposes as Competency-Oriented Outcomes
			The Infusion Strategy
		Bildung-Centered Didaktik
			Bildung
			A Theory of Content
			Classroom Teaching
		Getting Beyond the Competency Discourse and the Infusion Strategy
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	72 Process of Learning: Insights from Neuropsychology Studies and the Asia-Pacific Perspectives
		Introduction
		Learning as Brain Plasticity
		Domain-General Neurocognitive Processes in Learning
			Selective Attention
			Active Knowledge-Building
			Memory Consolidation
			Tying Them All: Metacognition and Executive Functions
		Interaction of Domain-General and Domain-Specific Neurocognitive Learning Processes
		Individual Differences and Developmental Changes in the Process of Learning
		Contextual Factors and Considerations for the Asia-Pacific
		Untapped Potential of Cognitive Neuroscience in Studying the Process of Learning
		Looking Forward: Lifelong Learning
		Conclusion
		References
	73 The Kaleidoscope of Adolescence: An Asian Perspective
		Adolescence in Asia: Context and Backdrop
		Perspectives on Adolescence as a Life Stage
		Significant Developmental Themes
			Biological Changes
			Gender Roles and Sexuality
			Consolidation of Self and Identity
			Lifestyle Choices
			Future Dreams and Aspirations
			Media
			Relationships
		Conclusion
		References
	74 The Influence of Culture on Students´ Mathematics Achievement in East Asia
		Introduction
		Methods and Data Sources
		Do East Asian Countries Form a Cluster in Mathematics Performance?
			Pattern of Strengths and Weaknesses in Mathematics Performance
			Noncognitive Aspects of Mathematics Learning
			Classroom Teaching and Learning Practices
		Is There a Link Between Language and Mathematics Learning?
		Discussion
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	75 Cross-Cultural Differences in Motivation
		Introduction
		Achievement Goal Theory
		Achievement Goal Research Across Cultures and in the Asia-Pacific
			Cross-Cultural Differences in Achievement Goal Endorsement
			Cross-Cultural Differences in the Goal-Achievement Associations
		Research Gaps and Future Directions
		Ecological System Model of Achievement Goal Complexes and Academic Achievement
		Conclusion
		References
	76 Advances in Personal Epistemology in the Asia-Pacific: A Content and Bibliometric Analysis
		Introduction
		Methods
			The Article Selection Process
			Data Coding and Analysis
		Results
			Publication and Citation Distribution from 1993 to 2020
			Frequencies and Percentages of Article Type
			Frequencies and Percentages of Teaching or Learning Domain
			Frequencies and Percentages of Target Populations
			Most Productive and Influential Countries/Areas in the Asia-Pacific
			Most Productive and Influential Journals
				Most Published and Cited Journals
				Most Co-cited Journals
			Most Productive and Influential Authors (Numbers, Citations, Co-citations)
				Most Published and Cited Authors
				Most Co-cited Authors
			The Most Cited Articles and Most Co-cited References
				The Top 10 Most Cited Articles
			Most Co-cited References
			Most Used Keywords
		Discussion
			Theme 1 (The Red Cluster): Epistemological/Epistemic Beliefs in Science Education and Constructivism-Oriented Learning Environ...
			Theme 2 (The Yellow Cluster): Epistemological/Epistemic Beliefs and Influences on Online Behaviors and Online Learning
			Theme 3 (The Blue Cluster): Epistemological/Epistemic Beliefs, Conceptions of and Approaches to Teaching and Learning for Pre-...
			Theme 4 (The Green Cluster): Epistemological/Epistemic Beliefs in Collaborative Knowledge-Building Environments
		Conclusion
		Appendix
		References
	77 Complexity of Academic Emotions in Online Video-Based Learning: Implications for Asian Learners
		Introduction
			Conceptual Classification of Academic Emotions
			Detecting and Measuring Academic Emotions
			Emotions in Technology-Enhanced Learning
			Research on Academic Emotions in the Asian Context
		Designing Affective Feedback Mechanisms
			Conditions for Providing Affective Feedback
			Affective Feedback Design
			Study 1: Utility Value Feedback for Learning Relevance
			Study 2: In-Video Quiz as Cognitive Feedback
		Discussions and Conclusion
		References
	78 Technology-Enhanced Instructional Practice During COVID-19 Pandemic and Implications for New Normal: Experience from China
		Introduction
		Enlightenment from the Practice of Massive Online Education
		School Teaching Organization Characterized by Flexible Learning and Teaching
			The Core of Flexible Learning and Teaching
			Typical Teaching Methods for Online Learning During Campus Closure
			Innovative Approaches for Online Learning and Education During Campus Closure
				Online Flipped Classroom
				Online-Merge-Offline Learning
				Dual-Teacher Classroom
				Expert-Based Collective Advising Mechanism (ECAM)
				Online Virtual Simulation Experiments
				MOOC/SPOC Based 1 + M + N Collaborative Teaching
				Open Educational Practices (OEP)-Based Courses
		The New Normal in Post-COVID-19 Education
		Conclusion
		References
Teacher Education and Professionalization
	79 Learning from Country: Aboriginal-Led Country-Centered Learning for Preservice Teachers
		Introduction
		Contextualizing Indigenous Education Within Teacher Education
		The Case for Country-Centered Pedagogies
		Capturing the Difficulty in Translating ``Country´´
		Country as a Threshold Concept
		Australian Country-Centered Learning Set Within Global Place-Based and Land-Based Education
		``Place-Based´´ Education
			Land Education and Land-Based Pedagogies
			Australian Country-Centered Learning and Pedagogies
		The Importance of Country-Centered Pedagogies for Aboriginal Communities and Aboriginal Students
		The Significance of Country-Centered Learning in Teacher Education for All Preservice Teachers
			The Connection between Country-Centered Pedagogies and Developing Preservice Teacher Critical Consciousness
			The Role of Yarning, Storytelling, and Country-Centered Pedagogies in Building Indigenous and Non-Indigenous People´s Relation...
		The Role of Aboriginal-Led Country-Centered Learning in Addressing ``Indigenizing´´ and Decolonizing Agendas
		Some Practical and Ethical Considerations for Implementing Country-Centered Pedagogies
		Conclusion
		References
	80 He ara e rua he whāinga kotahi: Walking Dual Pathways Toward Shared Goals in Initial Primary Sector Teacher Education
		Introduction
		The Prioritization of Culturally Responsive Practice in Graduates of Primary Sector Initial Teacher Education Programs in Aote...
		Te Pokai Mātauranga o Te Ao Rua: A Leader for Mainstream Primary Sector ITE Development and Design
		A New Professional Body, Professional Code, and Standards
		Opportunities Afforded the Mainstream Program Design by Listening to and Learning from the Bicultural Program
		Conclusion
		References
	81 Supporting the Teaching Profession to Enable a Culturally Responsive Curriculum
		Introduction
		Background
		Moving Towards Reconciliation: The Call to Action?
		The Call for Cultural Responsiveness: Has It Been Left Unanswered?
		Policy Imperatives: The Call Continues
		Responding to the Call: Developing Resources and Materials
		Why Is the Call Not Heeded: Why Is Change So Hard?
		Developing a New Approach to the Call: Your Story Our Journey
		A Different Call?
			Decolonizing Practices
		Conclusion
		References
	82 Teacher Education Landscape in the Moana: Future-Inspired Talatalanoa Ako/a`oga/a`oa`oga in Tonga and Samoa
		Introduction
		Literature Review
			Oceania as a Region
			Globalization and Global Education
			Teacher Professionalization
			Political Independence and Postcolonial Discourses
			Quality Teaching in Polynesia
		Policies, Frameworks, and Meetings
		Locally Inspired and Locally Driven Implementation
		Etymology of Terms
		Conceptual Framework: Talatalanoa Ako/A`oga/A`oa`oga and Vā-Relatings
		Two Case Studies: Weaving and Integrating Both Cases
		Tonga Case Study
			Teacher Professionalism
			The Search for ``Quality´´ in Professionalizing Teachers
			Addressing Gender Equality and Inclusive Education
		Samoa Case Study
			Teacher Professionalism
			The Search for ``Quality´´ in Professionalizing Teachers
			Addressing Gender Equality and Inclusive Education
		Conclusion: Insights and Lessons
		References
	83 Teacher Education Conditions in the Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, Fiji, and Vanuatu
		Introduction
		Solomon Islands Teacher Education
		Vanuatu Teacher Education
		Papua New Guinea Teacher Education
		Teacher Education in Fiji
		Conclusion
		References
	84 Time for a Renaissance in Pre-service Teacher Education in Thailand
		Introduction
		The Education System
		Issues Confronting the Schools
		Current Teacher Policy
		The Teacher Preparation System
		Reform of the Rajabhat Pre-service Programs
		Current Policies on Working Conditions for Teachers and Challenges in the Workplace
		Recommendations: Actions that Could Improve the Quality of the Teacher Workforce
		References
	85 Hong Kong Teachers´ Interpersonal Behavior in the Classroom
		Interpersonal Teacher Behavior as a Significant Domain of the Classroom Environment
		Interpersonal Teacher Behavior in the Asia-Pacific Region
		The Hong Kong Educational Context
		Interpersonal Teacher Behavior in Hong Kong
		Students´ Feelings Toward Different Types of Interpersonal Teacher Behavior
		Promoting Teachers´ Interpersonal Behavior Through an Action Learning Project
			The Action Learning Project
			Results of the Action Learning Project
			Teachers´ Reflection and Feedback
		Conclusion and Implications for Teacher Education
		References
	86 Systemic Approach Toward Teacher Professional Development for Curriculum Reform and Pedagogical Innovation in Taiwan: An In...
		Introduction
		A Demanding Agenda for Teacher Professional Development
			Challenges for Implementing Competency-Oriented Curriculum in Taiwan
			Demands for Fostering Teachers´ Competencies for Curriculum Renewal
			Demands for Enhancing Teachers´ Capacity for Pedagogical Innovation
		A Systemic Approach to Teacher Professional Development
			Current Teacher Professional Development System in Taiwan
			Identifying and Prioritizing Teacher Professional Development Needs
			Reconstructing the Teacher Professional Development Program Agenda
			Assembling the Professional Development Programs as Curriculum Work
				Developing Subject Curriculum Maps
				Designing and Delivering Inquiry-Based Teaching and Learning
				Incorporating Performance-Based Assessment into Teaching
				Using Advanced Technology in Teaching
			Establishing a Teacher Professional Development Support System
				Organizing Professional Support Networks
				Creating on-Line Professional Development Hubs
		Conclusion: Critical Reflection for Further Enhancement
		References
	87 Teacher Professionalization in Singapore: Equity-Centered Social Justice Teaching for a Multicultural Society
		Introduction
		Teaching for Equity, Diversity, and Social Justice
		The Singapore Context
			Multiculturalism and Meritocracy in Singapore
			Teaching and Teacher Professionalization in Context
		Research on Teaching for Equity, Social Justice, and/or Diversity in Singapore
			Teachers´ Perceptions and Perspectives
			Teachers´ Practice and Curriculum Enactment
		Implications and Conclusion
		References
	88 Promoting Teacher Collaboration Through Reflective Dialogue: A Case Analysis of Team Teaching in China
		Introduction
		A Case of Collective Reflective Dialogue
		Research Methodology
			Research Questions and Key Concepts
			Participants
			Data Collection
		Reflective Dialogues in Team Teaching: The Process
			Clarifying the Focus of Teaching: How to Explore and Highlight ``Conflict´´ in Narrative
			Innovating Teaching: Pairing Up with the Teachers
			Analyzing the Stories: Defining the Conflicts
		Discussion and Conclusion
			A Real Complex Problem
			The Participants´ Willingness for Exploratory Experiment
			Equal Participation of the Team Members
			Adaptive Roles of the Team Leader
			Spiral Development of the Dialogue
			The Cross-Institutional Collaboration
		Conclusion
		References
Case Studies of High-Performing Education Systems
	89 Lessons from High-Performing School Systems
		What We Know About Successful School Systems
		Making Education a Priority
		Believing That All Students Can Learn and Achieve at High Levels
		Setting High Expectations
		The Importance of Quality Teachers
			Attracting High-Quality Teachers
			Educating High-Quality Teachers
			Updating Teachers´ Skills
		Making the Most of Teachers´ Time
		Developing Capable Education Leaders
		Finding the Right Level of School Autonomy
		From Administrative to Professional Accountability
		The Buck StopsWhere?
		Articulating a Consistent Message
		Spending More Versus Spending Wisely
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	90 Development of a Learning System: The Hong Kong Story, an Insider´s Reflective Account
		Introduction
		Background
		System Evolution Since WWII
		Growth of Professionalism
		Consolidation of the System
		The Reform 1999
		Preparation for the Reform
		Achievements of the Reform
		Lessons and Challenges
		Concluding Thoughts
		References
	91 Prioritizing Education: The Macao Experience Since the Millennium
		Introduction
		Changing Landscapes
			Unwavering Commitment to Education
			Expanding Access to Quality Education
			Continuing Effort to Build an Integrated System
		Recent Progress in Educational Achievement
			Mean Test Score
			Gender Differentials
			Weak Link Between Family Background and Academic Performance
			Nurturing STEM Talents
		Conclusion
		References
	92 Will Japan´s High-Performing Education System Be Refreshed or Wither? An Exploration of Official Pedagogic Discourse
		Introduction
		Self-Representation of Japanese Education as a High-Performing System
		Bernstein´s Theories of Classification and Framing
		Tracing the Official Pedagogic Discourse
		Analyzing the 2021 Report
		Conclusion
		References
	93 Enabling Sustainable Success: Lessons from Singapore
		Introduction
			Overview of Singapore and Its Education System
		Singapore´s Education System in a Changing World
		Singapore´s Enabling Factors of Education
			Placing Great Value on Education and Educators
			Career-Long Development of the Professional Education Fraternity
			A Strong Education Tripartite Partnership and Focus
			Continuous Building of Guiding National Frameworks
			Learning from and Contextualizing International Best Practices
		Conclusion: Educating the Next Generation for Sustainability
		References
	94 Excellence Is Not Enough: The Taiwanese Case
		Introduction
		Taiwan As a High-Performing Education System
		Intended Curriculum: Taiwan´s National Curriculum and Guidelines
		Implemented Curriculum: Teacher Instruction and Textbooks
		Attained Curriculum: High-Stakes Examinations As Two Sides of a Coin
		Excellence Is Not Enough: The Next Step
		Conclusion
		References
	95 The Preparation of Teachers and Pedagogical Universities When Reforming the General Education Curriculum in Vietnam
		Introduction
		Reform Effort
			The Core Perspective of 2018 GEC
			The Educational Preparation for Vietnamese Teachers in the 2018 General Education Curriculum
				The Legislated Preparation
				The Curriculum Preparation
				The Vietnamese MoET´s ETEP Teacher Training Program for the New GEC
				The Teacher´s Competency Preparation
		Reform Implementation Issues
		Reform Impact
			The Importance of Key Lecturers (KLs) in Preparing the General Teachers for GEC´s Requirements
			The Capacity to Master the Curriculum and Tasks of the Core Teachers in GEC
			The Responsiveness of the General Teachers in the GEC Reforming
		Insights and Lessons
			Lessons Learned from the Core Teachers´ Training Participation and Their Responsibilities in the GEC Implementation
			Lessons Learned from the General Teachers´ Training Participation and Their Responsibilities in the GEC Implementation
			Lessons Learned from the Key Lecturers´ Participation and Their Responsibilities in the GEC Implementation
			Lessons Learned from the Key Pedagogical Universities´ Participation and Their Responsibilities in the GEC Implementation
		Summary and Conclusion
		References
	96 China´s Strategies and Pathways for Inclusive and Quality for All
		Introduction
		Incremental Education Reform with Evidence-Informed Policymaking
		Strategies and Approaches to Achieve Education Quality
			Shifting from Knowledge-Based Examination to Competency-Based Learning Assessment
			Developing a Quality Teaching Force
			Structural Reform in the Process of Urbanization
		How to Better Facilitate Equality in Education
			Efficiency-Driven Financing Scheme
			Reducing China´s Left-Behind Children Population
			Closing the Digital Learning Divide
		Coping with Challenges of COVID-19
		Recent Policy Developments: Double Reduction
		Conclusions
		References
	97 Between Light and Shadow: The Contrasting Landscape and Contemporary Development of South Korea´s School System
		Introduction
		Brief History of Korean School System
		The Contrasting Landscape of the School System
			Academic Excellence amid Inequality
			High Educational Attainment but Low Academic Confidence and Well-Being
			Coexistence of Well-Established School System with Ever-Expanding Shadow Education Market
		The Contemporary Development
			Free Academic Year System: Toward Students´ Interest, Happiness, and Future
			High School Credit System (HSCS): A New Policy Experiment for Student-Centered Curriculum Implementation
			Innovation Schools: A Policy-Driven Movement for School Improvement
			Introduction of the International Baccalaureate (IB) to Public Schools: Hope or Hype?
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	98 Demystifying High-Achieving Education System: Complexifying Quality and Equity in British Columbia
		Introduction
		Beautiful British Columbia
		The Claim to Quality
		Emerging Considerations
		Quantifying Quality
		Conclusion
		References
	99 Te Huarahi Māori: Revaluing the Role of Indigenous Language, Knowledge, and Identity in High-Performing Education Systems
		Introduction
		Bourdieu: Social Reproduction Theory
		The Performance of Educational Systems: Māori and Other Indigenous Groups
		Transforming the Habitus of ITE
		Role of Teacher Education: Māori Medium
		Case Study: Huarahi Māori
		Transforming the Habitus and Field
		Reforming the Field: The Development of the Huarahi Māori Program
		Reclaiming Cultural and Linguistic Capital
		Transforming the Important Cultural Capital
		Expanding the Field: Relating to External Key Stakeholder Groups
		Transforming the Habitus: Graduates of the Huarahi Māori Program
		Conclusion
		References
	100 Positioning Teacher Development for High Performance Through Digital Transformation and Support Systems in Kyrgyzstan
		Introduction
		Unpacking the Challenges in Teacher Development
		Locating the Possibilities of Leveraging Technology
		Conclusion
		References
Equity and Quality Education
	101 Comparing Equity and Quality Education in the Asia-Pacific
		Comparing Equity and Quality Education
		Theory to Practice
		Discussion
			Knowledge and ``Quality´´ in Quality Education
		Institutional Resets
		Conclusion
		References
	102 Educational Access and the Power of Education
		Introduction
		Context
		Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE)
		Primary and Secondary Education
		Technical, Vocational, Tertiary, and Adult Education
		Youth and Adult Literacy
		The Power of Education
		Conclusion
		References
	103 The Impact of Measures Aimed at Achieving Equity and Quality in Chinese Ethnic Minority Education
		Introduction
		A Brief Development History of Ethnic Minority Education
		Th Prevention and Controlling School Dropout Policy
		Progress and Achievements
			Eliminate Poverty Through Education
			Promotion of Gender Equity
			Increasing Enrollment of Ethnic Minority Students at all Educational Levels
		Challenges, Difficulties, and Perceptions of School Education on Equity and Quality Education
			Enormous Responsibility and Pressure
			``Hiding´´ Truth
			Language Diversity
			Culture and Tradition
			Unified Curriculum and Exam-Oriented Education
		Conclusion and Discussion
		References
	104 Educational Inequality in East Asia: A Review of Research Studies
		Introduction
		The State of Student Learning in East Asia
		Country-Level Economic Status and Student Learning
		Social Status and Achievement
		Teacher and Education Inequality in East Asia
		Knowledge of ICT Use by Students and Teachers
		Education Inequality in East Asia: What Are We Learning?
		Summary Comments on Status of Inequality in Education in East Asia
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	105 Education in an Uncertain Future: The Promise of Equity
		Introduction
		Equity in Education Is a Key to Cope with Uncertainty
		Mind the Equity Trap: Lessons from Australia and Canada
		Rethinking Education System for Uncertain Futures in the Asia-Pacific Region
		Conclusion
		References
	106 Educational Opportunity, Internationalization, and Upward Mobility in the Asia-Pacific
		Introduction
		Traditional Higher Education
		Expansion of Higher Education
		Conceptions of Equity and Quality
		Internationalization
		Conclusion
		References
	107 From Global Thinker to Innovative Mind: An Equity and Quality Roadmap Through Personalized Learning and Assessment
		Introduction
		Sustainability and the Global Thinker
		The Catalyst
		In Search of the Innovative Mind
		Innovation as Concept
		Institutional Forms of Innovation
		Innovation and the Individual
		Pedagogical Approaches to Innovation
		The PAT Study
		Discussion
		Conclusions
		References
	108 Leading Quality Education in the Asia-Pacific
		Introduction
		Education Success and ``Quality-Oriented´´ Reform Strategies
			Education Success in Asia
			Major Reform Strategies
		Underlying Values and New Challenges
			Underlying Cultural Scripts
			The Equity Challenge
		Recent Equity-Oriented Reform Initiatives
			Providing and Expanding Educational Services for Disadvantaged Students
			Mobilizing Resource Sharing Across Schools
			Controlling After-School Tutoring
		Leading High-Quality and Balanced Education: Ongoing Challenges
		Conclusion
		References
	109 Equity, Quality, Post-Neoliberalism, and the Knowledge Society of the Future
		Introduction
			Education and Culture in the Age of Post-neoliberalism
				Education in the Age of Post-neoliberalism
				Complex Relationship Between Education and Culture
				Stratification of Cultures in Education in Developing Countries
			Post-neoliberal Trends in Education in Low-Income Countries: ASEANness Education
				Regional Initiatives for the Development of School Education
				Caught Between Regional and National Values: Cambodia As an Example
				Significance of Regional Collaboration in School Education in the Age of Post-neoliberalism
			Higher Education in the Age of Post--neoliberalism: Its Expected Roles and New Forms of Collaboration
				Knowledge Production and Cultural Transmission in Higher Education
				Stratified Nature, and Possible Equalization of, Knowledge in Higher Education
		Conclusion: Culture in the Development of Education in the Age of Post-neoliberalism
		References
Education and Socioeconomic Development
	110 Changing Face of Higher Education and Development in the Asia-Pacific
		Introduction
		Growth of Higher Education in the Asia-Pacific
			Access Without Equity: Inequalities in Education
				Inequalities in Higher Education by Gender
				Inequality in Higher Education Between the Rich and the Poor
			Internal Efficiency in Higher Education
			``The Privatization Trap´´
			Globalization and Internationalization of Higher Education
			International Rankings
		Higher Education and Development in the Asia-Pacific
		Concluding Observations
		References
	111 Changes in Human Capital Discourse from Expansion to Employability: The Case of Higher Education Institutes in China
		Introduction
		Literature Review
			Neoliberalism, Human Capital, and Public Managerialism
		Employability
		Hybrid Neoliberalism, State, and Higher Education
		Research Approach and Findings
			Preliminary Remarks
		The Expansion of Higher Education Institutes in China
		Free Market-Led Approach and Wealth Distribution in China
		Employability Policy
		Conclusion
		References
	112 Japan´s Child-Focused Development and Education Reform in a New Knowledge Society
		Active Learning as a Response to the New Knowledge Society
			The New Knowledge Society in Japanese Education Policy
			Recent Revision of the Course of Study
			The Introduction of Active Learning in the COS
			Critical Views of Active Learning
		Taking a Broader Perspective
			Recent Education Reform by the Liberal Democratic Party
			The Education Sociology of ``Learning Motivation´´
			The Concept of ``Learning Capital´´
			Child Poverty: Emergence of Serious Issues in Japanese Society
			The Nippon Foundation´s Research into Child Poverty
			Youth Employment in Japan´s Economic Recovery: ``Freeters´´ and ``NEETs´´
		Failure of Active Learning
			Impact of Family Cultural Capital on Active Learning
		Recommendations
			Free Preschool Education and an Expansion of Vocational Training Programs
		Conclusion
		References
	113 Trends and Perspectives of Climate Change Education in the Asia-Pacific
		Introduction
		Global Calls to Accelerate Climate Change Education
		Development of Climate Change Education in Schools
			Leading Projects in Climate Change Education in Schools
			School Educational Policy, Curricula, and Pedagogy for Climate Change Education
				Educational Policy
				Curricula
				Pedagogy
		Implementing Climate Change Education in Teacher Education
			Educational Programs and Courses of Climate Change Education in Teacher Education
			Toward Innovation in Teacher Education for Climate Change Education Through Collaboration in the Asia-Pacific
		Conclusion
		References
	114 Higher Education and Social and Civic Development
		Introduction
		Traditional Notions of Social and Civic Developments: An Overview
		Emerging Functions of Higher Education: Relevant Theories and the Engaged University
			International Initiatives: Expanding Institutional Role of Higher Education
			Relevant Theories: Capacities and Normative Democratic Theory
			The Engaged University and Social Responsibility: Essential Model
		Asian Experiences in Advancing the Engaged University: Cases of Social Responsibility
			East Asian Cases: Japan and Taiwan
			Southeast Asian Cases: Limited Development
		Possible Achievements? Social Impact Rankings
		Institutional Challenges: Wider Policies and Academic Freedom
			Unfriendly Wider Policies: Neoliberalism and World-Ranking Movements
			Constrained Academic Freedom
		Conclusions: An Uneven Future?
		References
	115 Constructing Culture and Educating Citizens in Developmental States: Singapore and China
		Introduction
		Developmental State and Developmental Citizenship
		Asian/Confucian Values and the ``Singapore Model´´
		Cultural Construction and Citizenship Production in Singapore
		Cultural Construction and Citizenship Production in China
		Conclusion: Confucian-Based Culture As a Double-Edged Sword
		References
	116 Moral Education in Japan: Four Strands of Research on Policy and Practice
		Background to Moral Education in Japan
		Government Intent: Documents with Political Significance
			Textbook Analysis
			Disjoint 1
		Mapping a Taught Curriculum: Practice with Educational Significance
			Disjoint 2
		The Role of Moral Education Classtime
		Moral Education Under Reform: Insignificant Change or Glacial Revolution?
		Conclusion
		References
	117 School as a Sanctuary: Trauma-Informed Care to Nurture Child Well-Being in High-Poverty Schools
		Introduction
		Trauma-Informed Education: The Birth of a Movement
			The Four Rs of Trauma-Informed Care
			Casting a Wide Net: Trauma-Informed Education Is for All Learners and Does Not Diagnose or Assume
			The Teacher-Child Relationship
			Ecological Views of Trauma
			Beyond Deficit Thinking: Asset-Centered Approaches
		Conclusion
		References
	118 Policy Instruments for Educational Governance: A Comparative Investigation of India and China
		Introduction
		Policy Instruments and Typologies
		Education Policy Instruments in China and India: A Comprehensive Overview
			Nodality Instruments
				National Large-Scale Assessments
				Data Availability and Quality
			Authority-Based Instruments
				Foundational Legislations
				Recruitment and Management of Teachers
			Treasure-Based Instruments
				Patterns of Education Financing
				Performance Pay
			Organization-Based Instruments
				Government and Private Schooling Provisions
				(De)centralization and School-Based Management
				Merger and Consolidation of Government Schools
				Teacher Capacity Development
		Discussion: Instrument Use and Education Outcomes
		Conclusion
		References
Educational Research and Development Towards the Future
	New Contexts, New Learners, and New Research Perspectives
	Advances in Methods to Understand and Measure Learning
	Challenges to the Basic Fabric of Humanity and Human Relationships: Postdigital, Datafied Education
	Knowledge Mobilization
	119 Understanding Learning Lives in Transition: The Cultural Dynamics of Education Among Migrant Children
		Introduction
		The Era of Connectivity
		Learning Lives - An Educational Imperative
		Methodologies
		Snapshots of Empirical Data
		Snapshot 1: Tensions in Transition to School
		Snapshot 2: An Educational Makeover
		Snapshot 3: Deciding to Become a Teacher
		Implications
		References
	120 Generation Z and Beyond
		Introduction
		What Is Adaptation and Why Is It Needed?
		Prompting and Supporting Metacognitive Awareness
		Socioemotional and Motivational Competences for Productive Collaboration
		Socially Shared Regulation as a Framework for Developing Future Competences
		Co-evolution of Human Capabilities and Technologies
		Conclusion
		References
	121 How Brain-Based Research Can Rewire Education for Bi/Multilingual Children with Special Educational Needs in Hong Kong, In...
		Introduction
		An Overview of Neuroanatomy of Language Regions
		Neural Processing of Language, Reading, and Cognitive Functioning in Neurotypical Bi/Multilinguals
		Neural Processing of Language, Reading, and Cognitive Learning in Individuals with DD
		Comparing and Contrasting Language and Literacy Learning Across Hong Kong, India, and the Philippines
			Hong Kong Context: Biliteracy and Trilingualism
			Neural Representation of Language and Reading in Hong Kong Bi/Multilinguals with and Without SEN
			Indian Context: Language Use in India
			Neural Representation of Reading in Indian Bi/Multilinguals with and Without SEN
		The Philippine Context: Language Use in the Philippines
			Neural Representations of Reading in Filipino Bi/Multilingual Children with and Without SEN
			Studies on Filipino Bilingual Children with SEN
		The Challenges of SEN Diagnostic and Remedial Practices in the Bi/Multilingual Context
			Unresolved Issues of Clinical Practice for Bi/Multilingual Children
		Using Brain-Based Evidence to Guide Education/Clinical Practices for Bi/Multilingual Children with SEN
		Conclusion
		Appendix
		References
	122 Assessment Research and Practices to Advance Human Learning
		Introduction
		Assessment Systems
			Learning Theories
			Assessment Purposes: Of Learning and For Learning
			Qualities of a Balanced Assessment System
			Imbalanced Assessment Systems
		Formative Assessment
			Formative Assessment and Self-Regulation
			Formative Assessment and Co-Regulation
			Connecting Back to the UNESCO Four Pillars
		Protecting and Developing Assessment for Learning
			Examples of Practice
		Implications for Teacher Professional Learning
		Conclusion
		References
	123 Educational Development in the Postdigital Era
		Introduction: The ``Postdigital´´
		COVID-19 and the Online ``pivot´´
		The Political Economy of Data-Driven Education
		The Materiality of Data-Driven Education
		Conclusion
		References
	124 Ethical Principles for the Development and Application of Artificial Intelligence in K-12 Education
		Introduction
		Context Setting: AI, Algorithms and Ethical Challenges
		Context Setting: AI in Education
		Case Study: Digital Nord Anglia
			Data Ethics in Project DNA
		The NAE Methodological Approach
			The Process for Stakeholder Engagement
				Working and Steering Groups
					Example Scenario: ANTONIO
				Workshops and Focus Groups
				Enabling Technology Explorations
			The Creation of the NAE Ethics Framework: Data Ethics Framework Overview
			Examples of How the NAE Framework Can Guide Day-to-Day Operations of DNA
				Focus on User Agency
				User Agency for Students (Learning-Facing AIED)
				User Agency for Teachers (Teacher-Facing AIED)
				User Agency for Parents
		Concluding Discussion: Moving from Policy to Practice
		References
	125 Leading the Future of Education: Towards an Ecosystem in Support of Educational Innovations
		Introduction
		Problem Statement
		Situating Education Innovations
		Barriers to Innovation
		Leadership from the Middle
		LftM from an Individual Leadership Perspective Within a Schools´ Network
		Expanding LftM to the Institutional Leadership Perspective
		Discussion: A Case Example in Orchestrating Institutional LftM
		Conclusion
		References
	126 Supporting Quality Use of Research Evidence in Schools and Systems Within the Asia-Pacific
		Introduction
		Research on Evidence Use in Education
		Evidence-Informed Practice in the Asia-Pacific
		Quality Use As Well As Quality Evidence
		Evidence Use and Educational Professionalism
		Evidence Use and Educational Improvement
		Evidence Use as a System-Level Challenge
		Conclusions and Implications
		References
	127 Interdisciplinary and Interprofessional Partnerships: Mobilizing the Science of Learning to Impact Real-World Practice - T...
		Introduction
		Multidisciplinary and Interdisciplinary Research - Definitions and Challenges Associated with Crossing Disciplinary Boundaries
		Challenges Worth Overcoming
			Context Matters
			Educator Access to Relevant Research
			The Nature and Value of Different Forms of Evidence
			Educators´ Self-Efficacy Influences Their Engagement with Research in Their Practice
			Competing Priorities and a Lack of Time
		Supporting Effective Research Translation and Implementation
			Partnership Approaches
			Mutually Beneficial Partnerships Build on Authentic Problems of Practice and Value Practice-Based Evidence
			Building Capability and Efficacy in Partners
			Use a Systematic, Iterative Approach
		Background to the Science of Learning Research Centre (SLRC)
			The SLRC Partner Schools Program (PSP)
		Interprofessional Collaborations - The Convergence of Research and Practice
		What Have We Learnt and Where to Next?
		Conclusion
		References
Index