International Handbook of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning

Contents
Contributors
Part I: Foundations
	Foundations, Processes, Technologies, and Methods: An Overview of CSCL Through Its Handbook
		1 Section I: Foundations of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning
		2 Section II: Processes of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning
		3 Section III: Technologies for Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning
		4 Section IV: Methods for Studying Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning
		5 Conclusion and Looking Forward
			5.1 What Is Missing?
			5.2 What Comes Next?
		References
	Theories of CSCL
		1 Definitions and Scope: Theory of Theories
		2 History and Development
			2.1 Interdependence of Theory and Method
			2.2 Diversity of Theories and Traditional Oppositions
			2.3 Development and Learning in Vygotsky
		3 State of the Art
			3.1 Recent Theories Influential in CSCL
				3.1.1 Socio-Cognitive Research on CSCL
				3.1.2 Ethnomethodology
				3.1.3 Dialogism
				3.1.4 Knowledge Building
				3.1.5 Knowledge-Creating Learning
				3.1.6 Cultural-Historical Activity Theory
				3.1.7 Actor-Network Theory
				3.1.8 Group Cognition and Adopting Group Practices
			3.2 Dealing with Diversity
		4 The Future
			4.1 Toward an Integrated Theory of CSCL
			4.2 Elements of an Integrated Theory of CSCL
				4.2.1 Discourse and Interaction
				4.2.2 Interactional Mediation by CSCL Environments
				4.2.3 Epistemic Mediation by Knowledge Artifacts
				4.2.4 Temporality and Sequentiality
				4.2.5 Intersubjectivity and Shared Understanding
				4.2.6 Personal, Distributed, and Group Agency and Units of Analysis
				4.2.7 Orchestrating and Scaffolding the CSCL Culture
			4.3 Theoretical Perspectives on Implementing CSCL
				4.3.1 Implementing the Vision of CSCL in Classrooms
		References
		Further Readings
	A Conceptual Stance on CSCL History
		1 Definitions and Scope
			1.1 Conceptualizing CSCL
		2 History and Development: A Scientometric Analysis
		3 State of the Art
			3.1 Epistemological Stances in CSCL
				3.1.1 Individualism
				3.1.2 Relationism
				3.1.3 The Pragmatic and Computational Stance
			3.2 Methodological Stances in CSCL
				3.2.1 Analyzing Interactions Based on Predefined Dimensions and Categories
				3.2.2 Analyzing Interaction as Identification of Emergence in Collaboration
				3.2.3 Design-Based Research in CSCL
				3.2.4 Examining Mass Collaboration in CSCL
			3.3 Computational Artifacts in CSCL
				3.3.1 Interactive Surfaces
				3.3.2 Immersive Environments
				3.3.3 Technology-Enhanced Embodied Play
		4 The Future
		References
		Further Readings
	An Overview of CSCL Methods
		1 Definitions and Scope: CSCL Methodological Practices
		2 History and Development
		3 State of the Art: Current Methodological Practices in CSCL
			3.1 Research Questions in CSCL
			3.2 Research Designs and Settings
			3.3 Data Sources and Analysis in CSCL
			3.4 Mixing Methods in CSCL
			3.5 On the Relation Between Theory and Method
			3.6 Challenges in CSCL Research Methods
		4 The Future: Addressing Challenges and New Horizons
		5 Conclusion
		References
		Further Readings
	Conceptualizing Context in CSCL: Cognitive and Sociocultural Perspectives
		1 Definitions and Scope: What Is Context?
		2 History and Development
			2.1 Context as a Matter of Paradigm or Perspective
			2.2 Focal, Immediate, and Peripheral Layers of Context
		3 State of the Art: Two Theoretical Perspectives on Context
			3.1 Cognitive Perspectives on Context
				3.1.1 Theoretical Origins
				3.1.2 Research and Design Implications
			3.2 Sociocultural Perspectives on Context
				3.2.1 Theoretical Origins
				3.2.2 Research and Design Implications
		4 The Future
		5 Conclusion
		References
		Further Readings
	Interrogating the Role of CSCL in Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion
		1 Definitions and Scope
			1.1 Defining Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion
				1.1.1 Diversity
				1.1.2 Equity
				1.1.3 Inclusion
		2 History and Development
		3 State of the Art
			3.1 Language
			3.2 Differentiated Learning
			3.3 Identity
		4 The Future
		5 Conclusions
		References
		Further Readings
	Sustainability and Scalability of CSCL Innovations
		1 Definitions and Scope
		2 History and Development: Sustainability, Scalability, and DBIR
		3 State of the Art: Design Strategies for Scaling CSCL Innovations
			3.1 Design of Sustainable CSCL Models and Technologies to Scaffold Productive Learning Interactions
				3.1.1 Principle-Based Collaboration Environments to Guide CSCL Practice
				3.1.2 Discourse Scaffolds and Collaboration Scripts to Inform Students´ Engagement
				3.1.3 Reflective Supports for Student-Directed Regulation and Structuration of Collaborative Learning Practices
				3.1.4 Discipline-Specific CSCL Programs and Resources to Support Curriculum and Assessment Innovation
			3.2 Design of Supportive Architectures for Learning to Foster Scalability
				3.2.1 Teacher Learning and Innovation Through Codesign
				3.2.2 Network Models of Professional Learning and Collaboration
				3.2.3 School-UNiversity-Government (SUNG) Partnerships to Scaffold Multilevel Aligned Learning
				3.2.4 Design and Implementation of Sustainable Out-of-School Practices and Communities
		4 The Future: Conclusions and Next Directions
			4.1 Design Principles for Scalable CSCL Innovations
			4.2 Implications for Policy
		References
		Further Readings
Part II: Collaborative Processes
	Communities and Participation
		1 Definitions and Scope
		2 History and Development
			2.1 Socioculturally Minded Theories Come on the Scene
			2.2 Establishment of the Field Around These Foundational Ideas
			2.3 The Field Matures
		3 State of the Art: Scholarship on Participation and Communities
		4 The Future
		References
		Further Readings
	Collaborative Learning at Scale
		1 Definitions and Scope
		2 History and Development
			2.1 Conceptualizing Learning
			2.2 Conceptualizing Collaboration
		3 State of the Art: Considerations and Approaches
			3.1 Considering Scale: Problem or Asset
				3.1.1 Scale as a Problem to Be Mitigated
				3.1.2 Scale as an Asset to Be Harnessed
			3.2 Innovative Pedagogical and Technological Approaches
				3.2.1 Reduce Scale: Converting a Mass Into Small Groups
				3.2.2 Harnessing the Scale: Scaffolding Collaboration Within a Mass
		4 The Future
		References
		Further Readings
	Argumentation and Knowledge Construction
		1 Definitions and Scope
		2 History and Development
			2.1 Early Precursors of Argumentation Theories for CSCL
			2.2 The Uses of Arguments in Everyday Life and Their Development
			2.3 The Development of Methods and Tools
		3 State of the Art
			3.1 Reflective Interactions and the Rainbow Framework
			3.2 Analysis of Uptakes and the Polyphonic Model of Collaborative Learning
			3.3 Argumentative Knowledge Construction and Learning to Argue Online
			3.4 Argumentation in the Science Classroom and the Domain Specificity of Knowledge
			3.5 The Coevolution Model and the Integration of Opposing Arguments
		4 The Future
		References
		Further Readings
	Analysis of Group Practices
		1 Definitions and Scope: Learning as Acquisition of Group Practices
			1.1 Theory: Group Practices as Group-level Constructs
			1.2 Pedagogy: Curriculum for Acquiring Group Practices
			1.3 Design: Planning to Sequence Group Practices
			1.4 Technology: CSCL Supports for New Group Practices
			1.5 Methodology: Analysis of Adopted Group Practices
		2 History and Development: From Individual- to Group-Level Constructs
			2.1 Prehistoric Spirits as Explanations of Expertise
			2.2 Rational Minds as Thinkers
			2.3 Individuals Constructing Understanding
			2.4 Social Practice
			2.5 Ethnomethodology and Sequential Organization
			2.6 Interaction in the Setting
			2.7 Multimodal Sequential Analysis and Representational Practice
			2.8 Uptake as the Unit of Interaction
			2.9 Group Cognition
		3 State of the Art: Analysis of Group Practices at Multiple Sequential Orders
			3.1 Content Logging
			3.2 Segmentation
			3.3 Segment Description
			3.4 Relations Among Segments
			3.5 Identifying Adoption of Group Practices
			3.6 Computer-Supported Analysis of Group Practices
		4 The Future: Fostering Group Practices
			4.1 Theory: Acquiring Group Practices
			4.2 Pedagogy: Sequencing Group Practices
			4.3 Design: Orchestrating Group Practices
			4.4 Technology: Supporting Group Practices
			4.5 Methodology: Analyzing Group Practices
		References
		Further Readings
	Dialogism
		1 Definitions and Scope
			1.1 Unpacking Dialogism
			1.2 Dialogism in the Context of CSCL
		2 History and Development
			2.1 Theoretical Underpinnings
			2.2 Contemporary Developments
		3 State of the Art: Analysing and Designing for Dialogism
			3.1 The Polyphonic Model and the Associated, Computer-Supported, Analysis Method
				3.1.1 Introducing the Polyphonic Model
				3.1.2 The Polyphonic Analysis Method
			3.2 Designing Dialogic CSCL Sessions
		4 The Future
		References
		Further Readings
	Trialogical Learning and Object-Oriented Collaboration
		1 Definitions and Scope
		2 History and Development
		3 State of the Art
			3.1 Inquiry Learning and Engineering Practices
			3.2 Collaborative Design and Maker Culture
		4 The Future
		References
		Further Readings
	Knowledge Building: Advancing the State of Community Knowledge
		1 Definitions and Scope
		2 History and Development
		3 State of the Art
			3.1 Knowledge-Building Technology
			3.2 Knowledge-Building Pedagogy
			3.3 Knowledge-Building Analytics and Analytical Tools
			3.4 Epistemological Issues
				3.4.1 Activity Structures
				3.4.2 Scripts and Scripting
				3.4.3 Material Artifacts
		4 The Future: Prospects for a Knowledge-Building Culture
		References
		Further Readings
	Metacognition in Collaborative Learning
		1 Definitions and Scope
		2 History and Development
		3 State of the Art
		4 The Future
		References
		Further Readings
	Group Awareness
		1 Definitions and Scope
		2 History and Development
		3 State of the Art
			3.1 Group Awareness Tools by Type of Information: Going Beyond the Physical
				3.1.1 Type of Information: Cognitive Group Awareness Tools
				3.1.2 Type of Information: Social Group Awareness Tools
			3.2 Group Awareness Tools by Function: Going Beyond the Outcome
				3.2.1 Functional Level 1: Framing
				3.2.2 Functional Level 2: Displaying
				3.2.3 Functional Level 3: Feedback
				3.2.4 Functional Level 4: Problematizing
				3.2.5 Functional Level 5: Scripting
			3.3 Conclusions
		4 The Future
		References
		Further Readings
	Roles for Structuring Groups for Collaboration
		1 Definitions and Scope
		2 History and Development
			2.1 History and Development of Structuring
			2.2 History and Development of Roles
		3 State of the Art: What We Know about Roles for Structuring CSCL
			3.1 Conceptualization of Roles in CSCL Research
			3.2 Effects of Roles in CSCL Research
		4 The Future: Pedagogical Approaches and Technological Evolutions as Two Tracks for Future Development
		References
		Further Readings
Part III: Technologies
	Collaboration Scripts: Guiding, Internalizing, and Adapting
		1 Definitions and Scope
		2 History and Development: A Theoretical Perspective on Learning with Collaboration Scripts
			2.1 Internal Collaboration Scripts: What and how Do People Know About Collaboration?
			2.2 External Collaboration Scripts: How Can Configurations of Internal Script Components Be Shaped?
		3 State of the Art: Empirical Evidence for Learning with CSCL Scripts
		4 The Future: Research on Collaboration Scripts
			4.1 Flexibility of CSCL Scripts
			4.2 Learners´ and Teachers´ Agency When Learning with CSCL Scripts
			4.3 Generic Skills to be Scaffolded by CSCL Scripts
				4.3.1 Collaboration Scripts Scaffolding Transactivity and Learning Regulation
				4.3.2 Collaboration Scripts as a Framework to Analyze and Facilitate Interdisciplinary Collaboration
		5 Conclusion
		References
		Further Readings
	The Roles of Representation in Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning
		1 Definitions and Scope
		2 History and Development
		3 State of the Art
			3.1 Interpreting Existing Shared Representations to Guide Collaboration and Create Shared Knowledge
			3.2 Collaborating by Jointly Constructing Representations
			3.3 Using Representations to Portray oneself or Other Agents in the Collaboration
			3.4 Using Representations to Analyze Collaborative Activities and Their Outcomes
		4 The Future
		References
		Further Readings
	Perspectives on Scales, Contexts, and Directionality of Collaborations in and Around Virtual Worlds and Video Games
		1 Definitions and Scope: Collaborative Learning in Video Games and Virtual Worlds
		2 History and Development: From Small to Massive Scales of Collaboration
			2.1 Vignette: The Great Dragon Swooping Cough-Massive In-World Collaboration
		3 State of the Art
			3.1 Contexts of Collaboration: From in-Game to around, across, and between Games
			3.2 Vignette: Collaboration Through Videos and Comments in Minecraft YouTube Communities
			3.3 Directionality: Designed and Emergent Forms of Collaboration
			3.4 Vignette. Player-Creator Communities in The Sims
		4 The Future
			4.1 Pushing the Boundaries of Design for Collaboration
			4.2 Analyzing Across Multiple Scales and Contexts
			4.3 Conclusions
		References
		Further Readings
	Immersive Environments: Learning in Augmented + Virtual Reality
		1 Definitions and Scope
			1.1 Applications of the Sensory, Actional, Narrative, Social, Emancipatory (SANSE) Framework in CSCL Immersive Environments
		2 History and Development
			2.1 Headset VR
				2.1.1 Synergies with Sensory and Immediate Actional Immersion
				2.1.2 Synergies with Long-Term Actional and Narrative Immersion
				2.1.3 Synergies with Social and Emancipatory Immersion
			2.2 Desktop Virtual Worlds
				2.2.1 Synergies with Sensory and Immediate Actional Immersion
				2.2.2 Synergies with Long-Term Actional and Narrative Immersion
				2.2.3 Synergies with Social and Emancipatory Immersion
		3 State of the Art
			3.1 Space-Based AR (Tabletop and Room-Based Immersion)
				3.1.1 Synergies with Sensory and Immediate Actional Immersion
				3.1.2 Synergies with Long-Term Actional and Narrative Immersion
				3.1.3 Synergies with Social and Emancipatory Immersion
			3.2 Place-Based AR (GPS-Enabled Immersion)
				3.2.1 Synergies with Sensory and Immediate Actional Immersion
				3.2.2 Synergies with Long-Term Actional and Narrative Immersion
				3.2.3 Synergies with Social and Emancipatory Immersion
		4 The Future
		References
		Further Readings
	Robots and Agents to Support Collaborative Learning
		1 Definitions and Scope
		2 History and Development: A Brief Background of Robots and Agents in Education
		3 State of the Art
			3.1 Robots and Agents as Collaborative Learning Partners
			3.2 Social Metaphors
			3.3 Learner-Centered Interactions with and Between Pedagogical Agents
				3.3.1 Individual Self-Learning
				3.3.2 Self-Other Learning
				3.3.3 Others´ Learning
			3.4 Linking Theory to Practice Using Robots and Agents in Learning
		4 The Future: Prospects of Robots and Agents in Education
		References
		Further Readings
	Collaborative Learning Analytics
		1 Definitions and Scope
		2 History and Development: Analytics of Collaborative Learning (ACL)
			2.1 Examples of How Analytics of Collaborative Learning Further Understanding of CSCL
				2.1.1 Analytics of Collaborative Knowledge Building
				2.1.2 Analytics of Joint Attention
			2.2 From Understanding to Action
		3 State of the Art: Collaborative Learning Analytics (CLA)
			3.1 Changing the Shape of Support for Collaborative Learning Through CLA
				3.1.1 What Will CLA Do? The Relative Balance of Technology and Human Agency
					Adaptive CSCL
					Adaptable CSCL
				3.1.2 Who Will CLA Attend to? Support for Activity at Different Levels
				3.1.3 How Will CLA Operate? Iterations of Refining Collaborative Learning Efforts
		4 The Future: Conclusions and New Directions
		References
		Further Readings
	Tools and Resources for Setting Up Collaborative Spaces
		1 Definitions and Scope: What Is the Difference Between a Tool and a Technology, and Why Is That Distinction Important?
		2 History and Development: Toward Formalization of the Work of Learning Sciences
		3 State of the Art Tools: In Support of Foundations, Building, Orchestrating, and Analyzing
			3.1 Foundation Tools
			3.2 Building Tools
			3.3 Management Tools
			3.4 Analysis Tools
		4 The Future: From Research into Practice
		References
		Further Readings
Part IV: Methods
	Case Studies in Theory and Practice
		1 Definitions and Scope
		2 History and Development
			2.1 Cultural-Historical Activity Theory (CHAT)
			2.2 Critical Theory and Critical Pedagogy
			2.3 Dialogic Theory
			2.4 Actor-Network Theory
			2.5 Ethnomethodology and Conversation Analysis
		3 State of the Art
		4 The Future
		References
		Further Readings
	Design-Based Research Methods in CSCL: Calibrating our Epistemologies and Ontologies
		1 Definitions and Scope
		2 History and Development: DBR in CSCL
		3 State of the Art: Argumentative Grammars and Tensions Within DBR Epistemology and Ontology
			3.1 DBRs Dual Epistemic Game
			3.2 Why We Have Multiple Argumentative Grammars, and What Is Still Missing
			3.3 How the Dual Epistemic Game Percolates into Design Ontology
		4 The Future: Capitalizing on the Dual Epistemic Game in DBR to Spur Creativity and Innovation in Rigorous DBR Research
			4.1 Methodological Alignment as Means for Calibrating the Theoretical and Practical Aspects of DBR
			4.2 Transforming Ourselves as a Prerequisite for Transforming Others
			4.3 Methodological Alignment and DRTL: A CSCL Case Study
				4.3.1 Story Already Told-Part 1: Redesigning an Undergraduate Biology Course
				4.3.2 Untold Story: Dilemma in Research Highlighting the Need for Methodological Alignment
				4.3.3 Story Already Told-Part 2: The Culture of Learning Continuum as a Conceptual Lens
				4.3.4 Retrospective Analysis of Relationships Between Methodological Alignment, DRTL, and PPK
			4.4 Concluding Remark
		References
		Further Readings
	Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research in CSCL
		1 Definitions and Scope
		2 History and Development
			2.1 Independent Variables
				2.1.1 Studies on the Effects of Collaboration Versus Individual Learning in Computer-Supported Learning Settings
				2.1.2 Studies on the Effects of (Different Kinds of) Computers on Learning
				2.1.3 Studies on the Effects of Learning Environments and Scaffolds in CSCL
			2.2 Dependent Variables: Process Versus Outcome Variables
				2.2.1 Dependent Variables at the Individual Process Level
				2.2.2 Dependent Variables at the Collaborative Process Level
				2.2.3 Dependent Variables at the Individual Outcome Level
				2.2.4 Dependent Variables at the Collaborative Outcome Level
		3 State of the Art
			3.1 Multilevel Analysis
			3.2 Considering Statistical Power When Preparing CSCL Experiments
			3.3 Using Mixed Methods to Enhance CSCL Experiments
		4 The Future: Reproducibility, Replications, and Open Science
		References
		Further Readings
	Development of Scalable Assessment for Collaborative Problem-Solving
		1 Definitions and Scope
			1.1 Competency Model Development
		2 History and Development
			2.1 Assessment Approaches
		3 State of the Art as Illustrated by Examples from ACT and ETS
			3.1 ACT Efforts Toward CPS Assessment
			3.2 ETS Efforts Toward CPS Assessment
		4 The Future
		References
		Further Readings
	Statistical and Stochastic Analysis of Sequence Data
		1 Definitions and Scope
			1.1 Statistical View of Sequential Processes
			1.2 The Stochastic View of Sequential Processes
		2 History and Development
			2.1 Early Statistical Analyses
				2.1.1 Conditional Probability
				2.1.2 Sequential Analysis
				2.1.3 Vector Auto-Regression
			2.2 Early Applications of Stochastic Analysis
				2.2.1 Markov Models
				2.2.2 Hidden Markov Models
		3 State of the Art
			3.1 Recent Developments in Statistical Analysis
				3.1.1 Parallel Chats and Trees
				3.1.2 Task Difficulty
				3.1.3 Group/Individual Differences
				3.1.4 Differences Across Time
				3.1.5 Multiple Target Events, Latent Process, Indirect Effect, and Measurement Error
				3.1.6 Later Group/Individual Outcomes
			3.2 Recent Developments in Stochastic Modeling
				3.2.1 Extensions of Hidden Markov Models
				3.2.2 Dynamic Bayesian networks
		4 The Future
		References
		Further Readings
	Artifact Analysis
		1 Definitions and Scope
		2 History and Development
		3 State of the Art
			3.1 Code and Count Approaches
			3.2 Social Network Analysis
			3.3 Content Analysis of Verbal and Textual Data
			3.4 Polyphonic Analysis
		4 The Future: Research Areas and Future Directions
		References
		Further Readings
	Finding Meaning in Log-File Data
		1 Definitions and Scope
		2 History and Development
		3 State of the Art
			3.1 Computational Methods
			3.2 Interpretation and Meaning-Making
		4 The Future
		References
		Further Readings
	Quantitative Approaches to Language in CSCL
		1 Definitions and Scope: Quantification of Language in CSCL
		2 History and Development: Using Quantification as a Means to Address Issues of Bias
		3 State of the Art: Common Language Quantification Frameworks in CSCL
			3.1 Geographical and Contextual Representation
			3.2 Primary Theoretical Stance
		4 The Future: Emerging Trends and Important Considerations
		References
		Further Readings
	Qualitative Approaches to Language in CSCL
		1 Definitions and Scope: The Landscape of Discourse Analysis
		2 History and Development: The Place of Language-Based Methodologies in CSCL
			2.1 Mainstay Possibilities for CSCL: Conversation Analysis and Interaction Analysis
				2.1.1 Interaction Analysis
		3 State of the Art: Discourse Analytic Perspectives of Relevance to CSCL
			3.1 Critical Discourse Analysis
				3.1.1 Key Features of CDA
				3.1.2 Quality Markers of a CDA Study
				3.1.3 Example of a CDA Study Relevant to CSCL
			3.2 Discursive Psychology
				3.2.1 Key Features of DP
				3.2.2 Quality Markers of a DP Study
				3.2.3 Example of a DP Study
		4 The Future: Challenges and Possibilities for Discourse Analytic Approaches to CSCL Research
		References
		Further Readings
	Gesture and Gaze: Multimodal Data in Dyadic Interactions
		1 Definitions and Scope
		2 History and Development
		3 State of the Art
			3.1 Gaze Sensing in CSCL
			3.2 Gesture Sensing in CSCL
			3.3 Comparison Between Gaze Sensing and Gesture Sensing
			3.4 Fusion
		4 The Future
		References
		Further Readings
	Video Data Collection and Video Analyses in CSCL Research
		1 Definitions and Scope
		2 History and Development: Pioneering Video Research
			2.1 Foundational Analogue and Digital Video Studies in LS and CSCL
		3 State of the Art
			3.1 Benefits and Challenges of Using Video Methods in Learning Science Research
			3.2 Specification for CSCL Research-Selected Research Examples
		4 The Future
			4.1 Eye-Tracking in CSCL Research
			4.2 Related Tracking and Automatic Analyses Methods
			4.3 Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) in CSCL Research
			4.4 Conclusion
		References
		Further Readings
Index