Intermittent and Periodic Fasting, Aging and Disease

Preface
	References
Contents
About the Editors
Part I: Calorie Restriction
	Chapter 1: Caloric Restriction and Biomarkers of Aging
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 Biological Aging Is Associated with Functional Decline and Chronic Disease Risk
		1.3 Calorie Restriction as a Geroprotective Strategy
		1.4 Biomarkers of Aging Relevant to Calorie Restriction
			1.4.1 Calorie Restriction and Cellular Aging Biomarkers
			1.4.2 Calorie Restriction and Phenotypic Aging Biomarkers
			1.4.3 Calorie Restriction and Functional Aging Biomarkers
		1.5 Other Considerations of Calorie Restriction on Biomarkers of Aging
		1.6 On the Horizon
		References
Part II: Protein Restriction
	Chapter 2: Protein Restriction in Aging and Disease
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Health Benefits of Protein Restriction in Mammalian Animal Models
			2.2.1 Systemic Responses
			2.2.2 Hormonal Regulation
			2.2.3 Cellular and Molecular Responses
		2.3 Protein Restriction in Humans
		2.4 Strategies for Preventing Disease and Improving Therapeutic Outcomes
		2.5 Long-Term Implications and Sustainability
		2.6 Conclusion
		References
Part III: Intermittent Fasting: Time Restricted Eating
	Chapter 3: Time-Restricted Eating: A Circadian Intervention for the Prevention and Management of Metabolic Diseases in Animal Models and Humans
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Time-Restricted Feeding (TRF)
			3.2.1 Physiological Benefits of TRF in Preclinical Rodent Models
			3.2.2 Critical Factors to Consider
				3.2.2.1 Feeding Time: Day vs. Night
				3.2.2.2 Feeding Window and Calorie Consumption
				3.2.2.3 Health at Baseline and Study Population Characteristics
			3.2.3 Molecular Mechanisms of TRF Action
			3.2.4 Future Outlook in TRF Research
		3.3 Time-Restricted Eating (TRE)
			3.3.1 Temporal Eating Patterns
				3.3.1.1 Duration
				3.3.1.2 Variability
				3.3.1.3 Phase
				3.3.1.4 Frequency
			3.3.2 Translating TRF to Clinical Trials in Humans
			3.3.3 Critical Factors to Consider
				3.3.3.1 Method of Eating Window Assessment
				3.3.3.2 Eating Window vs. Average Daily Eating Duration
				3.3.3.3 Baseline Eating Window
				3.3.3.4 Duration of the TRE Intervention
				3.3.3.5 Phase of the Eating Window
				3.3.3.6 Personalized Eating Windows
				3.3.3.7 Implementation: Participant Engagement and Monitoring
				3.3.3.8 Duration of the Intervention
				3.3.3.9 Patient Population
			3.3.4 TRE in Shift Work
				3.3.4.1 TRE Clinical Trials in Shift Workers
			3.3.5 TRE Summary
		3.4 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 4: Time-Restricted Eating: Effects on Body Weight and Cardiometabolic Health
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Background
			4.2.1 Definition
			4.2.2 Current Eating Habits in the USA
			4.2.3 Counting Time, Not Calories
			4.2.4 Common Eating Windows in Humans
			4.2.5 Overview of the Literature
		4.3 Adherence
		4.4 Body Weight and Energy Metabolism
			4.4.1 One Meal a Day (≤4-Hour Windows)
			4.4.2 Four- to Six-Hour TRE
			4.4.3 Eight-Hour TRE
				4.4.3.1 Non-RCTs
				4.4.3.2 RCTs in Overweight Populations
				4.4.3.3 RCTs in Healthy Adults
			4.4.4 9–10-Hour TRE
			4.4.5 Meta-Analyses
			4.4.6 Body Composition
				4.4.6.1 Body Fat
				4.4.6.2 Fat-Free Mass
				4.4.6.3 Bone
			4.4.7 Energy Expenditure
			4.4.8 Food Intake
			4.4.9 Subjective Appetite
			4.4.10 Appetite-Related Hormones
		4.5 Glycemic Control
			4.5.1 Diabetes and Prediabetes
			4.5.2 Metabolic Syndrome and PCOS
			4.5.3 Other Populations
		4.6 Cardiovascular Health
			4.6.1 Lipids
			4.6.2 Blood Pressure
			4.6.3 Heart Rate
			4.6.4 Inflammatory Markers
			4.6.5 Oxidative Stress
			4.6.6 Other Cardiovascular Endpoints
		4.7 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 5: Time-Restricted Eating: Safety and Efficacy in Youth
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Intermittent Fasting in Youth
			5.2.1 Religious Fasting in Youth
			5.2.2 Alternate Day Fasting in Youth
			5.2.3 Time-Restricted Eating Intervention in Adolescents with Obesity
				5.2.3.1 Time of Eating Window in Youth
				5.2.3.2 Intermittent Fasting and Eating Behaviors in Youth
		5.3 Practical Considerations for Clinicians and Researchers
		5.4 Conclusion
		References
Part IV: Intermittent Fasting: Alternate Day Fasting and 5:2
	Chapter 6: Alternate Day Fasting and the 5:2 Diet: Effects on Body Weight and Metabolic Disease Risk Factors
		6.1 Introduction
			6.1.1 Types of Intermittent Fasting
			6.1.2 Methods: Human Trial Selection
		6.2 Effects of ADF and the 5:2 Diet on Body Weight, Body Composition, and Energy Intake
			6.2.1 Alternate-Day Fasting (ADF)
				6.2.1.1 ADF: Weight Loss Efficacy
				6.2.1.2 ADF: Weight Maintenance Efficacy
				6.2.1.3 ADF: Effect on Body Composition
				6.2.1.4 ADF: Effect on Energy Intake
			6.2.2 The 5:2 Diet
				6.2.2.1 5:2 Diet: Weight Loss Efficacy
				6.2.2.2 5:2 Diet: Effect on Body Composition
				6.2.2.3 5:2 Diet: Effect on Energy Intake
				6.2.2.4 Summary: Weight Loss Efficacy of ADF and 5:2
		6.3 Effects of ADF and the 5:2 Diet on Metabolic Disease Risk Factors
			6.3.1 Alternate Day Fasting (ADF)
				6.3.1.1 ADF: Effect on Blood Pressure
				6.3.1.2 ADF: Effect on Plasma Lipids
				6.3.1.3 ADF: Effect on Glucoregulatory Factors
				6.3.1.4 ADF: Effect on Inflammation and Oxidative Stress
			6.3.2 The 5:2 Diet
				6.3.2.1 5:2 Diet: Effect on Blood Pressure
				6.3.2.2 5:2 Diet: Effect on Plasma Lipids
				6.3.2.3 5:2 Diet: Effect on Glucoregulatory Parameters
				6.3.2.4 5:2 Diet: Effect on Inflammation and Oxidative Stress
				6.3.2.5 Summary: Changes in Metabolic Disease Risk Factors by ADF and 5:2
			6.3.3 Other Potential Benefits
				6.3.3.1 Sleep
				6.3.3.2 Gut Microbiota
			6.3.4 Safety of ADF and the 5:2 Diet
				6.3.4.1 Reproductive Hormones
				6.3.4.2 Resting Metabolic Rate (RMR)
				6.3.4.3 Thyroid Hormones
				6.3.4.4 Gastrointestinal and Neurological Adverse Effects
				6.3.4.5 Eating Disorder Symptoms
				6.3.4.6 Macronutrient, Micronutrient, and Beverage Intake
		6.4 Practical Considerations
			6.4.1 Who Should Not Do ADF and the 5:2 Diet?
			6.4.2 Advice on Starting an ADF or 5:2 Diet
			6.4.3 Exercise During ADF and the 5:2 Diet
		6.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 7: Cellular Adaptations to Intermittent Fasting with Emphasis on the Brain
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Effects of Intermittent Fasting on Brain Function and Structure
		7.3 The Brain Is Selectively Protected Against Structural Demise During Starvation
		7.4 Intermittent Fasting and Neurological Disorders
		7.5 Alzheimer’s Disease
		7.6 Parkinson’s Disease
		7.7 Stroke
		7.8 Epilepsy
		7.9 Multiple Sclerosis
		7.10 Traumatic Brain and Spinal Cord Injuries
		7.11 Anxiety Disorders and Depression
		7.12 Interactions of Exercise with IF
		7.13 Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms
		7.14 Challenge: Recovery Cycles and Long-Term Adaptations
		7.15 Overindulgence Results in Cellular Complacency and Vulnerability
		7.16 Implications for Lifestyles and Healthcare Systems
		References
Part V: Periodic Fasting
	Chapter 8: Periodic Fasting: Evolutionary Perspectives Explaining the Clinical Benefits
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Nutrition and Human Evolution
		8.3 Food Shortage and Famine in Human History
		8.4 Biology of Food Shortage and Overabundance in Evolutionary Perspective
		8.5 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 9: Fasting-Mimicking Diets in Longevity and Disease
		9.1 Introduction
			9.1.1 Fasting, Health span, and Longevity
			9.1.2 Periodic Fasting (PF) and Fasting-Mimicking Diets (FMDs)
		9.2 Fasting Response Mechanisms, Aging, and Age-related Diseases
			9.2.1 Physiological Changes During Fasting and FMDs
				9.2.1.1 Normal Aging
				9.2.1.2 Pre-diabetes and Diabetes
				9.2.1.3 Cardiovascular Disease (CVD)
				9.2.1.4 Neurodegeneration
				9.2.1.5 Autoimmunities and immunosenescence
				9.2.1.6 Cancer
			9.2.2 FMD Composition and the Regulation of the Fasting Response
		9.3 Molecular Pathways Involved in PF/FMD-Induced Longevity
		9.4 Safety and Practical Considerations for Fasting-Mimicking Diets
		9.5 Conclusion and Future Directions
		References
	Chapter 10: Effectiveness of Prolonged Fasting in Treating Human Chronic Diseases: Clinical Evidence and Empirical Insights from a Specialized University Medical Center
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Methods of Prolonged Fasting
			10.2.1 Prolonged Fasting in Practice
			10.2.2 Physiological Considerations in Prolonged Fasting
				10.2.2.1 Fasting and the Microbiome
		10.3 Indications, Clinical Experiences, and Existing Evidence on Prolonged Fasting
			10.3.1 Prolonged Fasting in Prevention
			10.3.2 Clinical Applications of Prolonged Fasting
				10.3.2.1 Prolonged Fasting in Metabolic Diseases
				10.3.2.2 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
				10.3.2.3 Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease
				10.3.2.4 Essential Arterial Hypertension
			10.3.3 Prolonged Fasting in Autoimmune Diseases
				10.3.3.1 Rheumatoid Arthritis and Other Autoinflammatory Joint Diseases
				10.3.3.2 Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
			10.3.4 Prolonged Fasting in Chronic Pain Syndromes of the Locomotor System
			10.3.5 Prolonged Fasting and Mental Health
			10.3.6 Prolonged Fasting and Cancer
			10.3.7 Prolonged Fasting and Fertility
		10.4 Safety and Contraindications
			10.4.1 Contraindications for Prolonged Fasting
			10.4.2 Adverse Effects
		10.5 Conclusions
		References