Interaction of Nanomaterials With Living Cells

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
Editors and Contributors
1: The Role of Synthetic and Natural Biomaterials in Modulating the Autoimmune Response
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Human Immune System: A Brief Outlook
	1.3 The Human Immune System Accounts for the Etiology and Pathogenesis of ADs
	1.4 Current Strategies and Therapeutics Against Autoimmune Diseases
	1.5 Biomolecules: Promising Candidates for Autoimmune Therapy
		1.5.1 Polymeric Hydrogels
		1.5.2 Inorganic Biomaterials
	1.6 Role of Biosensors in the Detection of Autoimmune Disorders: Rationale and Application
	1.7 Applications of Tissue Engineering in Countering Autoimmunity-Assisted Disorders
		1.7.1 Outstanding Characteristic Features of a Biomaterial Scaffold
		1.7.2 Hyaluronic Acid (HA) or Hyaluronan
		1.7.3 Chitosan
		1.7.4 Collagen
		1.7.5 Starch
		1.7.6 Silk Fibroin
		1.7.7 Synthetic Polymers
	1.8 Conclusion and Future Prospectus
	References
2: Nanotechnology-Based Biosensors in Medicine
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Various Detection Methods
		2.2.1 Mechanical Detection
		2.2.2 Optical and Electromagnetic Detection
		2.2.3 Electrical Detection
		2.2.4 Electrochemical Detection
	2.3 Development in Nanotechnology-Based Biosensors
	2.4 Nanotechnology-Based Biosensors
		2.4.1 Thin Films
		2.4.2 Nanomaterial-Based Biosensors
			2.4.2.1 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)
			2.4.2.2 Graphene
			2.4.2.3 Quantum Dots
			2.4.2.4 Chitosan
			2.4.2.5 Dendrimers
			2.4.2.6 Nanoparticles
				Gold Nanoparticles
				Silver Nanoparticles
				Platinum and Copper Nanomaterials
				Magnetic Nanoparticles
			2.4.2.7 Protein Chips
			2.4.2.8 Silicon Nanowires
			2.4.2.9 Nanobarcodes
			2.4.2.10 Biomimic-Based Biosensors or Molecular Self Assembly
			2.4.2.11 Nanofabrication
			2.4.2.12 Ion Channel Switch (ICS) Biosensor Technology
			2.4.2.13 Electronic-Based Nanobiosensors
			2.4.2.14 Viral Nanosensor
			2.4.2.15 PEBBLE-Based Nanosensors
			2.4.2.16 Optical Biosensors
			2.4.2.17 Laser Biosensors
	2.5 Applications of Nanobiosensors
		2.5.1 Detection of Glucose
		2.5.2 Detection of DNA and Protein
		2.5.3 Detection of Other Molecules
		2.5.4 In Immunohistochemistry
		2.5.5 Detection of Disease Biomarkers
		2.5.6 Detection of Single Nucleotide Polymorphism
		2.5.7 Detection of Disease Genes
		2.5.8 Detection of Microorganisms
			2.5.8.1 Bacteria
			2.5.8.2 Viruses
		2.5.9 Cancer Diagnosis
	2.6 Challenges and Future Trends
		2.6.1 Challenges
		2.6.2 Future Trends
	2.7 Conclusion
	References
3: Materials from Natural Resources for the Application of Bone Tissue Engineering
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Bone Tissue Engineering
	3.3 Bone Regeneration
		3.3.1 Calcium Phosphate
		3.3.2 Bioglass
		3.3.3 Collagen
		3.3.4 Chitosan
		3.3.5 Hyaluronic Acid
		3.3.6 Cellulose
		3.3.7 Starch
		3.3.8 Alginate
	3.4 Challenges to the Use of Materials from Renewable Resources
	3.5 Conclusion
	References
4: Hydroxyapatite is a Next-Generation Theranostic Probe for Tissue Engineering and Biomedical Application
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Structure of Hydroxyapatite
	4.3 Synthesis Routes
	4.4 HAp in Tissue Engineering and as an Implant
	4.5 HAp Nanostructures for the Delivery of Anticancer Drugs
	4.6 HAp for Advanced (PTT/PDT/Hyperthermia) Cancer Therapies
	4.7 Nano-Sized HAp in Imaging
	4.8 Limitations of HAp and Future Directions
	4.9 Concluding Remarks
	References
5: Green Synthesis of Metallic Nanoparticles and Various Biomedical Applications
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Biomedical Applications of Metallic Nanoparticles
		5.2.1 Nanoparticles as Antiviral Agents
		5.2.2 Nanoparticles as an Antibacterial Agent
		5.2.3 Nanoparticles as Antioxidant Agents
		5.2.4 Nanoparticles as an Anticancer Agent
		5.2.5 Nanoparticles as a Wound-Healing Agent
		5.2.6 Nanoparticles as an Anti-inflammatory Agent
		5.2.7 Nanoparticles as Antileishmanial Agent
		5.2.8 Nanoparticles as an Anticoagulant Agent
	5.3 Conclusion
	References
6: Functionalized Carbon Nanotube for Various Disease Treatment
	6.1 Introduction
		6.1.1 Carbon Nanotubes: Configurational Structures, Types, and Preparation
		6.1.2 Applications of Carbon Nanotubes in the Pharmaceutical and Medical Fields
	6.2 Properties of Carbon Nanotubes
		6.2.1 Physical Property
			6.2.1.1 Young´s Modulus and Tensile Strength
		6.2.2 Mechanical Property
			6.2.2.1 CNT Deformation Under Stress
		6.2.3 Thermal Property
			6.2.3.1 Specific Heat
			6.2.3.2 Thermal Conductivity
		6.2.4 Optical Property
		6.2.5 Electrical
	6.3 Characterization
		6.3.1 Carbon Nanotubes: Structures, Types, and Preparation
		6.3.2 Carbon Nanotube Structure
		6.3.3 Morphological and Structural Characterizations
		6.3.4 Photoluminescence Spectroscopy
		6.3.5 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)
		6.3.6 X-Ray Diffraction
		6.3.7 Transmission Electronic Microscopy
		6.3.8 Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
		6.3.9 Raman Spectroscopy
		6.3.10 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) and Purity
	6.4 CNT Functionalization
		6.4.1 Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes Used for Cancer Therapy
			6.4.1.1 By Drug Delivery
			6.4.1.2 By Antitumor Immunotherapy
			6.4.1.3 By Local Antitumor Hyperthermia Therapy
		6.4.2 Carbon Nanotubes for Infection Therapy
		6.4.3 Carbon Nanotubes for Gene Therapy by DNA Delivery
		6.4.4 Carbon Nanotubes for Tissue Regeneration and Artificial Implants
		6.4.5 Carbon Nanotubes for Neurodegenerative Diseases and Alzheimer´s Syndrome
		6.4.6 Carbon Nanotubes as Antioxidants
		6.4.7 Carbon Nanotubes as Biosensor Vehicles for Diagnostic and Detection
		6.4.8 Carbon Nanotubes for Therapeutic and Diagnostic Applications
		6.4.9 Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes for Vaccine Delivery
	6.5 Toxicity
		6.5.1 In Vivo Toxicity of CNTs
		6.5.2 In Vitro Toxicity of CNTs
		6.5.3 Cytotoxicity
		6.5.4 Pulmonary Toxicity
		6.5.5 Cardiovascular Effects
		6.5.6 Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity
		6.5.7 Toward the Reduction of Its Toxicity Issues
			6.5.7.1 Covalent Modification
			6.5.7.2 Noncovalent Encapsulation
			6.5.7.3 Surface Coverage Density
	6.6 Future Prospective
		6.6.1 In 3DPC Efficiency Enhancement
		6.6.2 In Electrochemical Sensing
	References
7: Nanotechnology: Changing the World of Animal Health and Veterinary Medicine
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Nano-carriers
	7.3 Using Nano-carriers in Veterinary Sciences
	7.4 Classification of Noncarriers
		7.4.1 Liposomes
		7.4.2 Polymeric Nanoparticles
		7.4.3 Quantum Dots
		7.4.4 Nano-shells
		7.4.5 Dendrimer
		7.4.6 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles
		7.4.7 Metallic Nanoparticles
		7.4.8 Polymeric Micelles
		7.4.9 Polymeric Nano-spheres
	7.5 Mechanism of Action of Nanoparticles Against Microorganisms
	7.6 Nanotechnology in Animal Science
		7.6.1 Nano-medicine
		7.6.2 Diagnosis and Treatment of Disease
		7.6.3 COVID-19 and Nanotechnology: Rejuvenating Diagnostic Regimen
		7.6.4 Nanotechnology-Based Therapeutic Agents Against Animal Coronaviruses
		7.6.5 Anti-microbial Resistance
		7.6.6 Nano-vaccines
		7.6.7 Feed Technology
		7.6.8 Animal Breeding and Reproduction
		7.6.9 Food and Feed Safety
	7.7 Toxicity Risk of Nanoparticles
	7.8 Challenges and Strategies
	7.9 Future Prospectus
	7.10 Conclusion
	References
8: Bioinspired Materials Inherited with Antimicrobial Properties for Tissue Engineering
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Outline and Background of Nanomaterials and Nanofibers
	8.3 Bioinspired Nanomaterials
	8.4 Overview of Tissue Engineering
	8.5 Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
	8.6 Tissue Engineering in Healthcare Systems
	8.7 Antimicrobial Bioinspired Materials
	8.8 Future of Bioinspired Materials
	8.9 Conclusion
	References
9: 3D and 4D Bioprinting Technology for Tissue Engineering Applications
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Prebioprinting
	9.3 3D Bioprinting Technology
		9.3.1 3D Bioprinting in Tissue Engineering
		9.3.2 Bioinks for 3D Bioprinting
			9.3.2.1 Natural Polymers
				Sodium Alginate
				Gelatin
				Silk Fibroin
				Agarose
				Pullulan
				Hyaluronic Acid
				Chitosan
				Collagen
			9.3.2.2 Synthetic Polymers
				Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA)
				Polyethylene Glycol (PEG)
				Polycaprolactone (PCL)
				Polylactic Acid (PLA) and Polyglycolic Acid (PGA)
		9.3.3 3D Bioprinting in Tissue Engineering Applications
			9.3.3.1 Bone Tissue Engineering
			9.3.3.2 Neural Tissue Engineering
			9.3.3.3 Vascular Tissue Engineering
			9.3.3.4 Skin Tissue Engineering
			9.3.3.5 Cartilage Tissue Engineering
		9.3.4 Other Requirements for Effective Scaffold Design
			9.3.4.1 Pore Size
			9.3.4.2 Surface Area
			9.3.4.3 Mechanical Properties
			9.3.4.4 Biodegradability
			9.3.4.5 Biocompatibility
			9.3.4.6 Viscosity
		9.3.5 Types of 3D Bioprinting
			9.3.5.1 Inkjet 3D Bioprinting
			9.3.5.2 Microextrusion 3D Bioprinting
			9.3.5.3 Laser-Assisted 3D Bioprinting
			9.3.5.4 Stereolithography (SLA)
	9.4 Transition from 3D Printing to 4D Printing
	9.5 Challenges, Future Directions, and Conclusions
	References
10: Hemocompatibility of Differently Modified Polymeric Nanofibers: Current Progress in the Biomedical Industry
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Effect of Drug-Loaded Nanofibers on Blood Compatibility
	10.3 Effect of Surface Topography of Nanofibers on Blood Compatibility
	10.4 Effect of Synthetic Nanofibers on Blood Compatibility
	10.5 Effect of Natural Nanofibers on Blood Compatibility
	10.6 Effect of Growth-Factor-Incorporated Nanofibers on Blood Compatibility
	10.7 Conclusion
	References
11: Polyurethane Nanofibers Fabricated by Electrospinning as Drug Carrier Systems for the Treatment of Cancer
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Nanotechnology in Cancer Diagnosis
		11.2.1 Quantum Dots
		11.2.2 Nanoshells
		11.2.3 Gold (Au) NPs
	11.3 Electrospinning
	11.4 Polyurethane as a Polymer for Electrospinning
	11.5 Electrospun Polyurethane Nanofibers for Drug Delivery Against Cancer
	11.6 Thermo-Responsive Nanofibers
	11.7 Conclusion
	References
12: Recent Trends in the Application of Materials for Cancer Therapy and Diagnosis
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Types of Nanomaterials for Biological Application
		12.2.1 Polymeric Nanoparticles
		12.2.2 Liposome
		12.2.3 Magnetic Nanoparticles
		12.2.4 Gold Nanoparticles
		12.2.5 Polymeric Micelles
		12.2.6 Polymer-Drug Conjugates
		12.2.7 Lipid-Drug Conjugates
	12.3 Nanomaterials Used for Cancer Diagnosis
		12.3.1 Nanotechnology-Assisted Cancer Imaging
			12.3.1.1 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
			12.3.1.2 Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
			12.3.1.3 Computed Tomography (CT) and Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT)
			12.3.1.4 Optical Fluorescence Imaging
			12.3.1.5 Ultrasound Imaging
			12.3.1.6 Photoacoustic Imaging
			12.3.1.7 Nanotechnology for In Vivo Imaging
		12.3.2 Nanotechnology Tools Used in Cancer Diagnosis
			12.3.2.1 Near Infrared (NIR) Quantum Dots
			12.3.2.2 Nanoshells
			12.3.2.3 Colloidal Gold Nanoparticles
			12.3.2.4 Detection of Circulating Tumor Cells
			12.3.2.5 Detection Through Cell Surface Protein Recognition
			12.3.2.6 Detection Based on mRNA
		12.3.3 Nanotechnology for Detection of Extracellular Cancer Biomarkers
			12.3.3.1 Protein Detection
			12.3.3.2 Circulating Tumor DNA (ctDNA) Detection
			12.3.3.3 microRNA (miRNA) Detection
			12.3.3.4 DNA Methylation Detection
			12.3.3.5 Extracellular Vesicle Detection
		12.3.4 Nanoparticles-Based Biosensors for Cancer Biomarker Screening
		12.3.5 Clinical Trials of Nanotechnology-Based Applications in Cancer Diagnosis
	12.4 Nanomaterials Used for Cancer Therapy
		12.4.1 Multifunctional Nanosystems for Cancer Therapy
			12.4.1.1 Core-Shell Nanostructure
			12.4.1.2 Polymers
			12.4.1.3 Liposome/Magnetic Nanoparticles Hybrid Nanoparticles
			12.4.1.4 Micelles
			12.4.1.5 Photodynamic Therapy
		12.4.2 Magnetic Nanoparticles in Cancer Therapy
			12.4.2.1 Hyperthermia
			12.4.2.2 MNPs for Hyperthermia-Based Therapy
			12.4.2.3 Delivery of MNPs to the Tumor Site
			12.4.2.4 Mechanism of Heat Generation Using MNPs
		12.4.3 Drug Delivery Vehicles
			12.4.3.1 Inorganic Nanocarriers
			12.4.3.2 Organic Nanocarriers
			12.4.3.3 Hybrid Materials for Drug Delivery
		12.4.4 Types of Utilized Therapies Combined with Nanoscale Vehicles
			12.4.4.1 Chemotherapeutics
			12.4.4.2 Radiotherapeutics
			12.4.4.3 Immunotherapeutic
			12.4.4.4 Peptides
			12.4.4.5 Oligonucleotides
		12.4.5 Remote Controlled Pulsatile Drug Release
		12.4.6 Drug Targeting Approaches for Cancer Therapy
			12.4.6.1 Active Targeting
			12.4.6.2 Passive Targeting
		12.4.7 Clinical Trials of Nanotechnology-Based Applications in Cancer Therapy
	12.5 Consideration of Nanomaterial: Advantages and Challenges
	References
13: Application of Bioactive Compounds and Biomaterials in Promoting Cell Differentiation, Proliferation, and Tissue Regenerat...
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Proliferation and Differentiation Potential of Stem Cells
	13.3 Herbal Bioactive Compounds to Induce Differentiation of Stem Cells
	13.4 Biomaterials and Their Characteristic to Design Ideal Substrates and Induce Cell Differentiation
	13.5 Future Prospective and Conclusion
	References
14: Materials for Gene Delivery Systems
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Gene Delivery Materials
		14.2.1 Viral Vectors
			14.2.1.1 DNA-Based Viral Vectors for Gene Delivery
				Adenovirus
				Poxvirus
				Vaccinia Virus
				Adeno-Associated Virus
				Herpes Simplex Virus
			14.2.1.2 RNA-Based Viral Vectors for Gene Delivery
				Retrovirus
			14.2.1.3 Oncolytic Viral Vectors for Gene Delivery
		14.2.2 Nonviral Vectors
			14.2.2.1 Lipid-Based Gene Delivery
				Cationic Lipid-Based Gene Delivery
					N-[1-(2, 3-Dioleyloxy)Propyl]-N,N,N-Trimethylammonium Chloride (DOTMA)
					2,3-Dioleyloxy-N[2(Sperminecarbaxamido)Ethyl]-N,N-Dimethyl-1-Propaminium Trifluoroacetate (DOSPA)
					N-[1-(2,3-Dioleyloxy)-Propyl]-N,N,N-Trimethylammonium Chloride (DOTAP)
					3[N-(N′,N′-Dimethylaminoethane)-Carbamoyl]Cholesterol (DC-Chol)
					Di-Octadecyl-Amido-Glycyl-Spermine (DOGS)
				Anionic Lipid-Based Gene Delivery
			14.2.2.2 Polymer-Based Gene Delivery
				Polysaccharide-Based Gene Delivery Systems
					Chitosan
				Gene Delivery Systems Based on Polyethyleneimine
				Poly(l-Lysine)-Based Gene Delivery Systems
			14.2.2.3 Peptide-Based Gene Delivery
		14.2.3 Physical Method of Gene Delivery
	14.3 Conclusion
	References
15: Natural Hydrogels as Wound Dressing for Skin Wound-Healing Applications
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Wound Healing
		15.2.1 Skin: Structure and Function
		15.2.2 Wound-Healing Process
			15.2.2.1 Hemostasis
			15.2.2.2 Inflammation
			15.2.2.3 Proliferation
			15.2.2.4 Tissue Remodeling
		15.2.3 Types of Wounds
		15.2.4 Causes of Chronic Wounds
			15.2.4.1 Diabetic Wounds
			15.2.4.2 Pressure Ulcers
	15.3 The Bacterial Population on Wounds
		15.3.1 Skin Microbiota
		15.3.2 The Role of the Microbiota in the Skin
		15.3.3 Factors That Modify the Skin Microbiota
		15.3.4 Skin Diseases Caused by Microorganisms
		15.3.5 Conventional Antimicrobial Agents
			15.3.5.1 Silver Nanoparticles
			15.3.5.2 Essential Oils
	15.4 Natural Hydrogels as a Wound Dressing
		15.4.1 Chitosan Hydrogels as a Wound Dressing
		15.4.2 Cellulose Hydrogels as a Wound Dressing
		15.4.3 Alginate Hydrogels as a Wound Dressing
		15.4.4 Gelatin Hydrogels as a Wound Dressing
	15.5 Conclusions
	References
16: Nanomaterial Applications in Cancer Therapy and Diagnosis
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Nanotechnological Approach for Cancer Detection
		16.2.1 Colorimetric Detection
		16.2.2 Biosensors
		16.2.3 Cell Imaging
	16.3 Nanotechnological Approach for Cancer Therapy
		16.3.1 Drug Delivery
		16.3.2 Photothermal Therapy
		16.3.3 Sonochemical Therapy
	16.4 Conclusion
	References
17: Nanocellulose as a Sustainable Nanomaterial for Films and Coating Layers via Spray-Coating and Applications
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Nanocellulose
		17.2.1 Characteristics of Nanocellulose
		17.2.2 Production of Nanocellulose
	17.3 Nanocellulose Films
		17.3.1 Solvent Casting
		17.3.2 Spin Coating
		17.3.3 Roll-to-Roll Printing
		17.3.4 Layer by Layer Assembly
		17.3.5 Vacuum Filtration
		17.3.6 Spraying Process
	17.4 Criteria for Fabrication of Free-Standing Nanocellulose Films and Barrier Coating on the Paper Substrates
		17.4.1 Proof of Concept of Spray-Coating
		17.4.2 Spray-Coated Nanocellulose Films
		17.4.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy of Spray-Coated Nanocellulose Films
		17.4.4 Thickness Investigation and Thickness Mapping of Spray-Coated Nanocellulose Films
		17.4.5 Thickness Mapping of Spray-Coated Nanocellulose Films
		17.4.6 Uniformity of Spray-Coated Nanocellulose Films
		17.4.7 Surface Roughness of Spray-Coated Nanocellulose Films
			17.4.7.1 Atomic Force Microscopy of Nanocellulose Films
			17.4.7.2 Atomic Force Microscopy of Nanocellulose Films
			17.4.7.3 Atomic Force Micrographs of Film Prepared by Vacuum Filtration
			17.4.7.4 Atomic Force Micrographs of Sheet Prepared by Vacuum Filtration
			17.4.7.5 Optical Profilometry Images for Spray-Coated Nanocellulose Films
			17.4.7.6 Optical Profilometry Images of Vacuum Filtered Nanocellulose Films
			17.4.7.7 Optical Profilometry Images of Base Surface: Circular Polished Stainless Steel Plate
			17.4.7.8 Parker Surface Print Instrument for Evaluation of Macroscale Roughness
		17.4.8 Bulk Properties of Nanocellulose Films
		17.4.9 Mechanical and Barrier Performance of Nanocellulose Film
		17.4.10 Critical Parameters in Spray-Coating
		17.4.11 Nanocellulose Suspension Consistency
		17.4.12 Adhesion Between Nanocellulose Suspension and Base Surface
		17.4.13 Spray Distance in the Experimental Setup
		17.4.14 Base Surface
		17.4.15 Spray Systems
		17.4.16 Velocity of the Conveyor
		17.4.17 Other Engineering Parameters for Improving the Spray System
		17.4.18 Application for Spray-Coating
		17.4.19 Air Permeance of Spray-Coated Nanocellulose Paper
		17.4.20 Application of Spray-Coated Nanocellulose Films
		17.4.21 Flexible and Printed Electronics
		17.4.22 Bismuth-Based Nanocellulose Composite
		17.4.23 Silver Nanowires-Nanocellulose Composites
		17.4.24 Biomedical Device
		17.4.25 Nanocellulose-MMT Composite
		17.4.26 Spray-Coated Nanocellulose as Layers for Membrane Development
	17.5 Recommendations
	17.6 Conclusion
	References
18: Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery System for Beginners
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Properties of Nanoparticles
	18.3 Classification of Nanoparticles
		18.3.1 Carbon-Based NPs
		18.3.2 Liposomes and Micelles
		18.3.3 Metal NPs
		18.3.4 Ceramics NPs
		18.3.5 Semiconductor, Inorganic and Nanoshell NPs
	18.4 Synthesis of NPs
		18.4.1 Bottom-Up or Building-Up Synthesis
		18.4.2 Top-Down Synthesis
	18.5 Applications of NPs
		18.5.1 Cancer Therapy
		18.5.2 HIV/AIDS Treatment
		18.5.3 Diagnosis and Testing
	18.6 Other Applications of NPs
		18.6.1 Nosocomial Infections
		18.6.2 Preparation of Food
		18.6.3 Solar Power
		18.6.4 Cleanup of the Environment
		18.6.5 Energy Harvesting
		18.6.6 Agriculture
		18.6.7 Improving Life Standards with Nanoelectronics
	18.7 Nanotechnology in Future
	18.8 Conclusion
	References
19: Osteoarthritis: Novel Insights in Treatment
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Osteoarthritis: Pathophysiology
	19.3 Markers of Osteoarthritis
	19.4 Risk Factors of Osteoarthritis
	19.5 Symptoms of Osteoarthritis
	19.6 Diagnostic Approaches of Osteoarthritis
	19.7 Treatment Options of Osteoarthritis
		19.7.1 Non-pharmacological Intervention
		19.7.2 Pharmacological Intervention
		19.7.3 Surgical Intervention
		19.7.4 Intra-articular Intervention
	19.8 Conclusion
	References
20: Promoting the Bio-potency of Bioactive Compounds Through Nanoencapsulation
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 Encapsulation Methods of Essential Oils
		20.2.1 Liposome-Based Techniques
			20.2.1.1 Emulsification
			20.2.1.2 High-Pressure Homogenization
			20.2.1.3 Ultrasonic Technique
		20.2.2 Spray Drying
		20.2.3 Electrospinning
		20.2.4 Freeze-Drying
		20.2.5 Extrusion
		20.2.6 Coacervation
		20.2.7 Inclusion Complexation
		20.2.8 Ionic Gelation
	20.3 Restraints of Encapsulation Methods
	20.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
	References
21: Review on Green Synthesis, Modification, Characterization, Properties, and Applications of Palladium Nanoparticles in Biom...
	21.1 Introduction
	21.2 Literature Review
	21.3 Synthesis of Pd NPs
		21.3.1 Mechanism of Synthesis of Pd NPs
		21.3.2 Plant-Mediated Synthesis of Pd NPs
		21.3.3 Biological Systems for Biogenesis of Pd NPs
	21.4 Modification of Pd NPs
		21.4.1 Surface Modification by Metal Oxide
		21.4.2 Interstitial Doping of Boron Metal
		21.4.3 Sulfur-Based Ligand
	21.5 Characterization of Pd NPs
		21.5.1 UV-Vis Analysis
		21.5.2 FTIR Analysis
		21.5.3 XRD Analysis
		21.5.4 EDX Analysis
		21.5.5 SEM Analysis
		21.5.6 TEM Analysis
	21.6 Properties of Pd NPs
		21.6.1 Catalytic Properties
		21.6.2 Hydrogen Sensing Properties
		21.6.3 Magnetic Properties
	21.7 Application
		21.7.1 Catalytic Activity
		21.7.2 Antibacterial Activity
		21.7.3 Anticancer Activity
		21.7.4 Antioxidant Activity
		21.7.5 Biosensor
		21.7.6 Gene and Drug Delivery
		21.7.7 Lithium-Oxygen Battery
	21.8 Future Scope of Pd NPs
	21.9 Conclusions
	References
22: Innovative Nanomaterials with Profound Antibacterial Action Applied in Biomedical Sciences
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 Factors Affecting the Antimicrobial Activity
	22.3 Antibacterial Materials
	22.4 Natural Products
	22.5 Antibacterial Nanomaterials
	22.6 Applications of Antibacterial Materials
	22.7 Limitations of Antibacterial Materials
	22.8 Conclusion and Future Trends
	References
23: Musculoskeletal Pains and its Common Diseases: Novel Insights in Treatments Using Biomaterials
	23.1 Introduction
	23.2 Musculoskeletal System Tissue Engineering
	23.3 Cellular Sources for Musculoskeletal Tissue Engineering
	23.4 Polymers and Biomaterials
	23.5 Herbal Active Ingredients or Bioactive Herbal Extracts
	23.6 Effective Parameters in the Design of Tissue Engineering Scaffolds
	23.7 Summary and Future Perspectives
	References
24: Electrospun Cellulose- and Derivatives-Based Nanofibers Loaded with Bioactive Agents for Wound Dressing Applications
	24.1 Introduction
	24.2 Classification of Wound Dressings
	24.3 Physiological Process of Wound Healing
		24.3.1 Phases of Wound Healing Process
		24.3.2 Factors that Delay the Process of Wound Healing
	24.4 Properties of Cellulose and Derivatives in Wound Healing Applications
	24.5 Electrospinning Technique and Properties of Electrospun Nanofibers
	24.6 Electrospun Cellulose- and Derivatives-Based Nanofiber Wound Dressing Loaded with Bioactive Agents
		24.6.1 Cellulose-Based Nanofibers
		24.6.2 Electrospun Cellulose Acetate-Based Nanofibers
		24.6.3 Carboxymethyl Cellulose-Based Nanofibers Loaded with Bioactive Agents
		24.6.4 Ethyl Cellulose-Based Nanofibers Loaded with Bioactive Agents
		24.6.5 Other Electrospun Cellulose Derivatives-Based Nanofibers Loaded with Bioactive Agents
	24.7 Commercially Available Cellulose-Based Wound Dressing Products
	24.8 Conclusion and Future Perspective
	References
25: Co-delivery of Anticancer Drugs Using Polymer-Based Nanomedicines for Lung and Prostate Cancer Therapy
	25.1 Introduction
	25.2 Classification of Anticancer Drugs
	25.3 Challenges in Lung and Prostate Cancer Treatment
	25.4 Advantages of Combination Chemotherapy Using Nanomedicines
		25.4.1 Synergistic Anticancer Effects
		25.4.2 Co-delivery of Bioactive Molecules with Different Physicochemical and Pharmacological Properties
		25.4.3 Ratiometric Drug Loading and Drug Release Mechanism
		25.4.4 Stimuli-Responsive
	25.5 Co-delivery of Anticancer Drugs Using Polymer-Based Nanomedicines
		25.5.1 Polymeric Nanoparticles
			25.5.1.1 Nanoparticles for Lung Cancer Therapy
			25.5.1.2 Nanoparticles for Prostate Cancer
		25.5.2 Dendrimer
			25.5.2.1 Dendrimers for Lung Cancer
		25.5.3 Micelles
			25.5.3.1 Micelles for Lung Cancer
			25.5.3.2 Micelles for Prostate Cancer
		25.5.4 Polymer-Drug Conjugates
			25.5.4.1 Polymer-Drug Conjugates for Lung Cancer
			25.5.4.2 Polymer-Drug Conjugates for Prostate Cancer
		25.5.5 Polymeric Nanocapsules
			25.5.5.1 Nanocapsules for Lung Cancer
			25.5.5.2 Nanocapsules for Prostate Cancer
		25.5.6 Nanoliposomes
			25.5.6.1 Nanoliposomes for Lung Cancer
			25.5.6.2 Nanoliposomes for Prostate Cancer
		25.5.7 Other Nanomedicines Co-loaded with Anticancer Drugs for Lung and Prostate Cancer Therapy
			25.5.7.1 Other Nanomedicines for Co-delivery of Anticancer Drugs to Lung Cancer Cells
			25.5.7.2 Other Nanomedicines for Co-delivery of Anticancer Drugs to Treat Prostate Cancer
	25.6 Nanomedicines in Clinical Trials for Lung and Prostate Cancer Treatment
	25.7 Conclusion and Future Perspective
	References
26: Silver Nanoparticle-Incorporated Textile Substrate for Antimicrobial Applications
	26.1 Introduction
	26.2 Incorporation of Ag NPs on the Surface of the Textile Substrate
		26.2.1 Cotton-Based Textile Substrate
		26.2.2 Protein-Based Textile Substrate
		26.2.3 Polyester and Nylon-Based Textile Substrate
		26.2.4 Polyolefin-Based Textile Substrate
		26.2.5 Blend of Natural and Synthetic Fabric-Based Textile Substrate
		26.2.6 High-Performance Fiber-Based Textile Substrate
	26.3 Incorporation of Ag NPs onto the Structure of the Textile Substrate
		26.3.1 Biodegradable Polymers
		26.3.2 Nonbiodegradable Polymers
	26.4 Conclusion
	References
27: Recent Advancement of Gelatin for Tissue Engineering Applications
	27.1 Introduction
	27.2 Composition of Gelatin
	27.3 Source of Gelatin
	27.4 Chemical Structure of Gelatin
	27.5 General Characteristics of Gelatin
	27.6 Biomaterials Based on Gelatin
	27.7 Recent Advances in Gelatin for Tissue Engineering
	27.8 Conclusion and Future Perspective
	References
28: Biomedical Applications of the Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) Technology
	28.1 Introduction
	28.2 Fused Filament Fabrication
		28.2.1 Definition
		28.2.2 Desktop FFF 3D Printers
		28.2.3 Industrial FFF 3D Printers
		28.2.4 Filaments for the FFF Technology
	28.3 Composite Filaments
	28.4 Biomedical Applications of FFF
		28.4.1 Scaffolds for 3D Culture
		28.4.2 Surgical Models
		28.4.3 Prostheses
	28.5 Future Perspective of FFF in Medicine
	28.6 Conclusions
	References
29: Role of Stem Cells in the Delivery of Essential Pharmaceuticals
	29.1 Introduction
	29.2 Stem Cells
	29.3 Stem Cells in Regenerative Medicine
		29.3.1 Strategies for Regenerative Medicine
	29.4 Mesenchymal Stem Cells and Drug Delivery
		29.4.1 Mesenchymal Cells as Gene Carriers
		29.4.2 Stem Cells as Drug Carriers
		29.4.3 Application of Stem Cell Secretome for Regeneration
	29.5 Conclusion
	Bibliography
30: Biomaterials in Autoimmune Diseases
	30.1 Introduction
		30.1.1 Immune Tolerance
		30.1.2 A Collapse in Immune Tolerance: Autoimmune Disease
	30.2 Biomaterial-Based Immunotherapy
		30.2.1 Adjuvant-Induced Autoimmune Syndrome
		30.2.2 Biomaterials for Drug Delivery and Disease Detection in Autoimmune Diseases
		30.2.3 Polymers
		30.2.4 Inorganic Materials
		30.2.5 Bioactive Molecules
		30.2.6 Biomaterials for the Treatment of Autoimmune Diseases
			30.2.6.1 Rheumatoid Arthritis
			30.2.6.2 Multiple Sclerosis
	30.3 Type 1 Diabetes
	30.4 Conclusion
	References
31: Regulatory and Ethical Issues Raised by the Utilization of Nanomaterials
	31.1 Introduction
		31.1.1 Nanomaterials: An Overview
		31.1.2 Carbon-Based NPs
		31.1.3 Metallic Nanomaterials
		31.1.4 Ceramic-Based Nanomaterials
		31.1.5 Polymeric Nanomaterials
		31.1.6 Biomolecule-Derived Nanomaterials
	31.2 Applications
	31.3 Nanomaterials and the Environment
	31.4 Nanotechnology in Biomedical Sciences
	31.5 Nanomaterials and Food Science
	31.6 Potential Risks and Hazards
	31.7 Health Risks
		31.7.1 Pulmonary Toxicity
		31.7.2 Neurotoxicology
		31.7.3 Dermal Toxicity
	31.8 Environmental Toxicity of Nanomaterials
	31.9 Regulatory Landscape of Nanomaterials
		31.9.1 United States of America
		31.9.2 European Union
		31.9.3 Canada
		31.9.4 Asia
	31.10 Regulatory Challenges
	31.11 Lack of a Globally Acknowledged Definition
	31.12 Inadequate Knowledge of Tracking the Origins and Pathways of Nanomaterials
	31.13 Difficulty in Nanomaterial Exposure Assessment
	31.14 Lack of Understanding of Toxic Mechanisms of Nanomaterials
	31.15 Difficulty in Evaluating the Bioavailability of Nanomaterials
	31.16 Ethical Issues
		31.16.1 Privacy Violation
		31.16.2 Issues Arising from Military Applications
		31.16.3 Public Trust and Transparency Issues
		31.16.4 Intellectual Property Rights
		31.16.5 The ``Gray Goo´´ Myth
	31.17 Conclusion
	References