InGaAs Avalanche Photodiodes for Ranging and Lidar (Woodhead Publishing Series in Electronic and Optical Materials)

Cover
InGaAs Avalanche
Photodiodes for
Ranging and Lidar
Copyright
Dedication
Preface
Acknowledgements
1 - Types of avalanche photodiode
	1.1 - APD function
		1.1.1 - APD junctions
			1.1.1.1 - p–n junction formation
			1.1.1.2 - p–i–n junction under strong reverse bias
			1.1.1.3 - The separate absorption-charge-multiplication structure
		1.1.2 - Geiger-mode operation
			1.1.2.1 - Breakdown probability
			1.1.2.2 - Single-photon detection efficiency and dark count rate
				1.1.2.2.1 - Spatial distribution of photocarrier generation
				1.1.2.2.2 - Spatial distribution of dark carrier generation
				1.1.2.2.3 - Internal collection efficiency
				1.1.2.2.4 - PDE
				1.1.2.2.5 - DCR
			1.1.2.3 Afterpulsing and crosstalk
				1.1.2.3.1 Extraction of afterpulse probability from free-run DCR data
				1.1.2.3.2 Blinding by afterpulsing
				1.1.2.3.3 Crosstalk
			1.1.2.4 Geiger-mode APD photoreceivers
			1.1.2.5 Semiconductor photomultipliers
				1.1.2.5.1 Statistics of afterpulsing and crosstalk
				1.1.2.5.2 Dark current, photocurrent, and responsivity
		1.1.3 - Linear-mode operation
			1.1.3.1 - Spatial distribution of avalanche gain
			1.1.3.2 - Quantum efficiency
			1.1.3.3 - Average gain, responsivity, and dark current
			1.1.3.4 - Gain sensitivity to field strength and gain saturation
			1.1.3.5 - Multiplication noise
			1.1.3.6 - Temporal response
			1.1.3.7 - Linear-mode APD photoreceivers
	1.2 - APD structure
	1.3 - APD material systems and waveband coverage
		1.3.1 - Si, Ge, and Ge/Si APDs
		1.3.2 - GaAs/AlGaAs APDs
		1.3.3 - GaAs/AlInP, 4H-SiC, and GaN APDs
		1.3.4 - InP/InGaAs/InAlAs APDs
		1.3.5 - InAs, GaSb/InAs, InP/AlAsSb, InP/AlGaAsSb, and GaSb/AlInAsSb APDs
		1.3.6 - CdZnTe/HgCdTe APDs
	1.4 - APD design considerations
		1.4.1 - Sparse versus continuous signals
		1.4.2 - Free-space versus fiberoptic signals
	References
2 - Avalanche photodiode figures of merit
	2.1 - Preliminaries
		2.1.1 - Statistics of photon number and electron count
			2.1.1.1 - Discrete probability distributions
				2.1.1.1.1 - Distribution of a random variable conditioned on another random variable
				2.1.1.1.2 - Distribution of the sum of two independent random variables
				2.1.1.1.3 - Complementary cumulative distribution function
				2.1.1.1.4 - Population mean, variance, and standard error of the mean—signal and noise
				2.1.1.1.5 - Binomial distribution
				2.1.1.1.6 - Poisson distribution
				2.1.1.1.7 - Exponential distribution
				2.1.1.1.8 - McIntyre distribution
				2.1.1.1.9 - Cascaded shifted Bernoulli distribution
				2.1.1.1.10 - Central limit theorem and Gaussian distribution
			2.1.1.2 - Burgess variance theorem
				2.1.1.2.1 - Attenuation of an optical signal
				2.1.1.2.2 - Avalanche multiplication and the excess noise factor
		2.1.2 - Statistics of optical power and current
			2.1.2.1 - Instantaneous optical power
			2.1.2.2 - Instantaneous current
			2.1.2.3 - Stochastic impulse response
			2.1.2.4 - Current noise
				2.1.2.4.1 - Band-limited current noise
				2.1.2.4.2 - Wiener–Khintchine and Milatz theorems
		2.1.3 - Power conventions
	2.2 - Performance of Geiger APDs
		2.2.1 - Optical power measurement
		2.2.2 - Pulse detection
	2.3 - Performance of linear APDs and photoreceivers
		2.3.1 - Simplifying assumptions
			2.3.1.1 - Primary carrier generation separate from multiplication
			2.3.1.2 - Linear response model
				2.3.1.2.1 - APD response
				2.3.1.2.2 - TIA response
		2.3.2 - Optical power and photon number measurement
			2.3.2.1 - Noise-equivalent power and noise-equivalent input
				2.3.2.1.1 - Dark noise of an APD
				2.3.2.1.2 - Dark noise of an APD photoreceiver
				2.3.2.1.3 - NEP and NEI of an APD
				2.3.2.1.4 - NEP and NEI of an APD photoreceiver
			2.3.2.2 - Signal-to-noise ratio
				2.3.2.2.1 - Signal of an APD photoreceiver
				2.3.2.2.2 - Total noise of an APD photoreceiver
				2.3.2.2.3 - SNR of an APD photoreceiver
		2.3.3 - Pulse detection
			2.3.3.1 - Photoreceiver output distribution
			2.3.3.2 - False alarm rate
			2.3.3.3 - Pulse detection probability
			2.3.3.4 - Receiver conversion gain and pulse sensitivity
			2.3.3.5 - Bit error rate
	2.4 - Red herrings
		2.4.1 - Excess noise of a Geiger APD
		2.4.2 - Johnson–Nyquist noise and R0A
	References
3 - APD photoreceivers for range-finding and lidar
	Abstract
	Keywords
	3.1 - Radiometry and effective range
	3.2 - Range error of linear-mode photoreceivers
		3.2.1 - Photoreceiver temporal response
			3.2.1.1 - Photoreceiver bandwidth and pulse distortion
			3.2.1.2 - Analytic model of photoreceiver bandwidth
			3.2.1.3 - Numerical model of photoreceiver temporal response
		3.2.2 - Timing error model
		3.2.3 - Random range errors
		3.2.4 - Systematic range errors
			3.2.4.1 - Range walk
			3.2.4.2 - Refractive index error
	References
4 - Linear-mode InGaAs APD design and manufacture
	4.1 - Linear-mode InGaAs APD design
		4.1.1 - Models
			4.1.1.1 - Optical TMM
			4.1.1.2 - Monte Carlo implementation of DSMT
		4.1.2 - APD speed
			4.1.2.1 - Dependence on absorber thickness
			4.1.2.2 - Dependence on ionization rate ratio
		4.1.3 - Low-noise multiplier design
			4.1.3.1 - Thin multipliers
			4.1.3.2 - Heterostructure multipliers
				4.1.3.2.1 Superlattice staircase multipliers
				4.1.3.2.2 Superlattice digital alloy multipliers
				4.1.3.2.3 Simple heterostructure multipliers
	4.2 - InGaAs APD manufacture
		4.2.1 - Yield and failure
	References
	Abstract
	Keywords
Appendix
	A.1 - Crystal structure
	A.2 Reciprocal lattice
	A.3 - Diffraction and Brillouin zones
	A.4 - Electronic band structure
		A.4.1 - Bloch functions and crystal momentum
		A.4.2 - Bloch function properties
		A.4.3 - Empty lattice approximation
		A.4.4 - Qualitative features of real band structures
		A.4.5 - Band gaps
		A.4.6 - Pseudopotential models of band structure
		A.4.7 - Tight binding models of band structure
		A.4.8 - k·p models of band structure
	A.5 - Electron motion in electric fields
		A.5.1 - Holes
		A.5.2 - Inertial effective mass
			A.5.2.1 - Heavy and light hole dispersion relations
			A.5.2.2 - Electron and split-off hole dispersion relations
	A.6 - Band occupancy
		A.6.1 - Density of states and density of states effective mass
		A.6.2 - Carrier concentration and doping
	A.7 - Generation and recombination
		A.7.1 - Optical Generation and Recombination
		A.7.2 - Impact ionization
		A.7.3 - SRH generation and recombination
		A.7.4 - Tunneling
	References
Index
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