Industrial Wastewater Reuse: Applications, Prospects and Challenges

Contents
Constructed Wetlands and Vermifiltration Two Successful Alternatives of Wastewater Reuse: A Commentary on Development of These Alternate Strategies of Wastewater Treatment
	1 Introduction
	2 History of Wastewater Treatment
	3 Objectives of Wastewater Treatment
	4 Characteristics of Wastewater
	5 Levels of Wastewater Treatment
	6 Methods of Wastewater Treatment
		6.1 Conventional Methods
		6.2 Non-conventional Methods
	7 Constructed Wetlands
		7.1 Types of Constructed Wetlands
	8 Performance of CW for Elimination of Antibiotics, Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria and Genes
		8.1 Efficiency of CWs for Removal of Antibiotics
		8.2 Efficiency of CWs for Removal of ARBs and ARGs
	9 Pros and Cons of Using Constructed Wetlands
	10 History of Development of Vermifiltration
	11 Mechanism of Vermifiltration
	12 Role of Earthworm-Microbe Interaction in Vermifiltration
	13 Applications of Vermifiltration
		13.1 Treatment of Domestic Wastewater
		13.2 Treatment of Industrial Wastewater
	14 Application and Identification of the Proteins Expressed in Coelomic Fluid
	15 Applications of Vermifiltration in Improving Constructed Wetlands
	16 Conclusion
	References
Treatment of Metallurgical Wastewater by a Combination of Zero Valent Iron and Coagulation Technology
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Metallurgical Industry
		1.2 Metallurgical Wastewater
		1.3 Treatment of Metallurgical Wastewater
		1.4 Objective of the Work
	2 Current Situation of Wastewater Treatment at Metallurgical Experimental Facility
		2.1 Pretreatment of Metallurgical Wastewater
		2.2 Concentrated Metallurgical Wastewater Treatment
	3 Development of Metallurgical Wastewater Treatment Technology
		3.1 Propose a Metallurgical Wastewater Treatment System
		3.2 Technical Characteristic of the Chemicals and Materials
	4 Calculation of Metallurgical Wastewater Treatment System
		4.1 Mixing in Tube
		4.2 Reaction Tanks
		4.3 Absorbent Materials
		4.4 Total Height of Adsorption Column
	5 Operational Procedure of the Metallurgical Wastewater Treatment System
		5.1 Operational Procedures
		5.2 Sample Analysis
	6 Performance of Metallurgical Wastewater Treatment System
		6.1 Analysis Results
		6.2 Effective of the Proposed Treatment System
	7 Conclusion and Remarks
	References
Valorization of Sugarcane Vinasse for Fungal Biomass Protein Production: Potential Application as Fish Feed Ingredient
	1 Introduction
	2 Fungal Biomass Protein Production from Byproducts and Industrial Residues to Be Used in Fish Feeds
	3 Mycotoxins: Harmful Effects on Fish Farming Productivity
	4 Nutritional and Toxicological Properties of Aspergillus Sp. V2 Biomass Cultivated on Vinasse for Use as Aquafeed Purposes: A Case Study
		4.1 Effects of the Culture Conditions on the Growth of Aspergillus Sp. V2
		4.2 Effect of the Incubation Time and Nutrients Supplementation on the Biomass Protein Production of Aspergillus Sp. V2
		4.3 Essential Amino Acids Profile of the Biomass Selected
		4.4 Occurrence of Aflatoxins in Biomass Selected
	5 Conclusions
	References
Emerging Contaminants in Wastewater: Eco-Toxicity and Sustainability Assessment
	1 Introduction
	2 An Overview of Emerging Contaminants (ECs)
		2.1 Sources and Pathways
		2.2 Regulatory Guidelines
	3 Environmental Impacts of Emerging Contaminants (ECs)
		3.1 Eco-Toxicity Effect on Human Health
		3.2 Eco-Toxicity Effect on Aquatic Life
	4 Removal Mechanisms of Emerging Contaminants (ECs)
		4.1 Biodegradation of ECs
		4.2 Sorption onto Sludge Solids
	5 Techniques for Extraction of ECs
		5.1 Activated Sludge Treatment Technique
		5.2 Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor
		5.3 Trickling Filter (TF)
		5.4 Constructed Wetlands
		5.5 Membrane Bioreactor
	6 Integrated Systems for the Removal of ECs
		6.1 Membrane Bioreactor-Based Integrated Systems
		6.2 Constructed Wetland and Aerated Lagoon-Based Integrated Systems
		6.3 Advanced Oxidation Process and Adsorbent-Based Integrated Systems
		6.4 Sequencing Batch Reactor-Based Integrated Systems
	7 Sustainability Assessment of the Hybrid Systems Towards Removal of ECs
	8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	References
Membrane and Disinfection Technologies for Industrial Wastewater Treatment
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Environmental Impact of Various Industrial Wastewater
		1.2 An Overview of Membrane Technology
		1.3 Disinfection Techniques in Brief
	2 Membrane Processes for Industrial Wastewater Treatment
		2.1 Ultrafiltration and Microfiltration
		2.2 Nanofiltration and Reverse Osmosis
		2.3 Forward Osmosis
		2.4 Electrodialysis
	3 Disinfection Technologies for Industrial Wastewater Remediation
		3.1 Conventional Methods
		3.2 Advanced Processes
	4 Challenges and Limitations of Membrane and Disinfection Technologies
	5 Case Studies: Wastewater Treatment in the Industries
	6 Summary and Future Perspective
	References
Holistic Approach to Remediate Heavy Metals and Radionuclides
	1 Introduction
	2 Causes and Effects of HMs and Radionuclides in the Environment
	3 Remediation Techniques for Heavy Metals and Radionuclides Polluted Soil
	4 Microorganisms: A Valuable Asset in the Removal of Radionuclides
		4.1 Biosorption and Bioaccumulation
		4.2 Biostimulation
		4.3 Biomineralisation
	5 Phytoremediation
		5.1 Phytostabilisation
		5.2 Phytovolatilisation
		5.3 Phytoextraction
		5.4 Hyperaccumulator Plants
	6 Remediation of HMs by Live/decayed Microbes
		6.1 Algae
		6.2 Bacteria
		6.3 Fungi
	7 ‘-Omics’-Implemented Radionuclide Bioremediation
	8 Nano-Bioremediation
	9 Conclusion
	References
The Role of Nanotechnology in Bioremediation of Pollutants
	1 Introduction to Bioremediation
		1.1 Strategies Used in Bioremediation
		1.2 Classification of Bioremediation
		1.3 Genetic Modification of the Remediating Organisms
		1.4 Application of Organisms in Bioremediation
		1.5 Factors Affecting Bioremediation
	2 Prelude to Nanotechnology
		2.1 Terms Related to Nano
		2.2 What Is Nanoscience?
		2.3 Classification and Types of NMs
		2.4 Nanomaterials’ Sources
		2.5 Methods of Nanoparticle Synthesis
		2.6 Action of Nanoparticles to Control Pollution
		2.7 Nanoremediation: A Conventional Remediation Operation
		2.8 The Science of Bioremediation With Nanoparticles
		2.9 Caliber of Nanomaterials Making Them Suitable for Bioremediation
		2.10 Implementation of Nanomaterials in Bioremediation
		2.11 Nanoremediation of Wastewater—Modus Operandi
		2.12 Supremacy of Nano-Bioremediation
		2.13 Challenges of Nanoremediation
		2.14 Recent Trends in Nano-Based Remediation
	3 Conclusion
	References
Nanobiotechnology: A Sustainable Approach for Marine Environment Bioremediation
	1 Introduction
	2 Nanomaterials in Bioremediation
	3 Green Synthesis (Biosynthesis) of Nanoparticles
	4 Microbially Manufactured NPs
		4.1 Bacteria-mediated Synthesis of Nanoparticles
		4.2 Actinobacteria-mediated Synthesis of Nanoparticles
		4.3 Archaea-mediated Synthesis of Nanoparticles
		4.4 Mycogenic and Yeast-mediated Synthesis of Nanoparticles
		4.5 Polymicrobial Communities-mediated Synthesis of Nanoparticles
	5 Nanomaterials Biotransformation in the Environment
	6 Nano-enhanced Remediation
		6.1 Nano-enhanced Wastewater Treatment
		6.2 Nano-enhanced Metal and Nutrient Removal
		6.3 Nano-enhanced Oil Spill Removal
		6.4 Nano-enhanced Plastic Biodegradation
		6.5 Nano-enhanced Dye Biodegradation
		6.6 Nano-enhanced Anti-fouling
	7 Nanomaterial Mechanisms and Interactions with Contaminants and Remediators
		7.1 Absorption
		7.2 Adsorption
		7.3 Enzymatic Conversion
		7.4 Redox Reaction
		7.5 Photocatalysis
		7.6 Filtration
	8 Conclusion, Challenges, and Future Perspective
	References
Cell Immobilization for the Fungal Bioremediation of Wastewater Contaminated with Heavy Metals
	1 Introduction
	2 Heavy Metals
	3 Bioremediation
	4 Bioremediation with Free Fungi
	5 Bioremediation with Immobilized Fungi
	6 Conclusion
	References
Wastewater Treatment Technologies
	1 Introduction
	2 Contaminants in Wastewater
		2.1 Metals
		2.2 Nitrogen and Phosphorus Compounds
		2.3 Total Solids
		2.4 Microorganisms
		2.5 Pharmaceutical Compounds
	3 Stages in the Treatment of Industrial Wastewater
		3.1 The Primary Stage
		3.2 Secondary Stage
		3.3 Tertiary Stage
		3.4 Coagulation and Flocculation in Wastewater Treatment
	4 Technologies for the Treatment of Wastewater
		4.1 Biotechnological Approaches in Wastewater Treatment
		4.2 Role Membrane Technology in Wastewater Treatment
		4.3 Chemical Oxidation Processes in Wastewater Treatment
		4.4 Advanced Oxidation Process (AOPs)
	5 Conclusion and Future Trends
	References
Genetically Modified Microbe Mediated Metal Bioaccumulation: A Sustainable Effluent Treatment Strategy
	1 Introduction
	2 Bioaccumulation by Genetically Modified Bacteria
		2.1 Arsenic
		2.2 Cadmium
		2.3 Mercury
		2.4 Other Metals
	3 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
	References
Nano-Remediation: Ecofriendly Approach in Pollutants Removal
	1 Introduction
	2 Application of Nanotechnology and Nanobioremediation in Pollutant Degradation
	3 Removal of Pollutants from Water Sources Through NBT
		3.1 Removal of Microbial Contamination
		3.2 Removal of Heavy Metals
		3.3 Removal of Organic Pollutants in Water
	4 Removal of Air Pollutants by NMs
		4.1 Nano-Adsorptive Material in Air Pollution
		4.2 Nanocatalysts
		4.3 Nanofiltration
	5 Nanobioremediation
	6 Nano-Phytoremediation
	7 Challenges in Nanobioremediation and Nano-Phytoremediation
	8 Conclusion
	References
Bioremediation of Soils Polluted with Hexavalent Chromium Using Bacteria
	1 Introduction
	2 Sources of Chromium in the Environment
		2.1 Occurrence in Soil
		2.2 Occurrence in Air
		2.3 Occurrence in Water
		2.4 Chromium Cycle
	3 Toxic Effects of Hexavalent Chromium
		3.1 Microbes
		3.2 Plants
		3.3 Humans
	4 Remediation Strategies
		4.1 Biological Detoxification of Cr(VI)
		4.2 SWOT Analysis of Bioremediation
	5 Bacterial Remediation of Hexavalent Chromium
		5.1 Bacteria-Mediated Cr(VI) Reduction
		5.2 Mechanism of Cr(VI) Remediation
	6 Improvement in Bioremediation Strategies for Cr(VI) Reduction
		6.1 Optimisation of Physicochemical Factors
		6.2 Bacterial Immobilisation
		6.3 Genetic Engineering
	7 Concluding Remarks
	References
New Bioremediation Technologies to Remove Heavy Metals and Radionuclides
	1 Introduction
	2 New Bioremediation Technologies to Remove Heavy Metals and Radionuclides
		2.1 Bioremediation Using Bacteria for Removal of Heavy Metals and Radionuclides
		2.2 Bioremediation Using Fungi to Remove Heavy Metals and Radionuclides
		2.3 Bioremediation Using Algae to Remove Heavy Metals and Radionuclides
		2.4 Bioremediation Using Plants to Remove Heavy Metals and Radionuclides
	3 Conclusion
	References
Water Reuse Planning, Policy, Monitoring Requirements  and Standards/Criteria
	1 Introduction
	2 Urban Water Management
		2.1 Efficiency of Water
		2.2 Rain Water Harvesting System
	3 Risk Assessment in Water Treatment Plant
	4 Role of Government
		4.1 Unnoticed Water Conservation Initiatives
	5 Research and Development
	6 Role of Industries in Water Reuse Planning
		6.1 Recycle
		6.2 Optimisation
		6.3 Cost
		6.4 Applicability
	7 Environmental Protection Agency
	8 Legal and Institutional Provision
	9 Water Reuse Action Plan
	10 Conclusion
	References
Wastewater Treatment and Reuse in Future Cities
	1 Introduction
	2 Mineralization of Emerging Contaminants (ECs) in Wastewater
		2.1 Classification and Major Sources of ECs
		2.2 Primary WWT Technologies
		2.3 Secondary WWT Technologies
		2.4 Tertiary WWT Technologies
	3 Membrane Technologies for WWT
		3.1 Ultrafiltration
		3.2 Nanofiltration
		3.3 Microfiltration
		3.4 Reverse Osmosis
		3.5 Membrane Modules and Selection
	4 Sustainable Treatment Types
		4.1 Lagoons/Wetlands
		4.2 Anaerobic Digestion
		4.3 Soil Aquifer Treatment (SAT)
	5 Advanced Oxidation Processes for WWT
		5.1 Ozone-Based AOPs
		5.2 Electrochemical AOPs
		5.3 Photocatalytic AOPs
		5.4 UV-Based AOPs
		5.5 Physical AOPs
	6 Current Treatment Technologies
		6.1 Physicochemical Treatment
		6.2 Biological Methods
	7 Comparative Analysis of WWT Technologies
		7.1 Activated Sludge Method (ASM)
		7.2 Membrane Bioreactor Method
	8 Reuse in Future Cities
	9 Pledge
		9.1 Cities of Europe
		9.2 Cities of Asia
		9.3 Cities of Africa
	10 Future Challenges of WWT and Reuse in Future Cities
	11 Conclusion
	References
Inorganic Nitrogen and Phosphate Removal from Port Water Using Microalgal Biotechnology Toward Sustainable Development
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Inorganic Nitrates and Phosphates Contamination
		1.2 Toxicity of Nitrates and Phosphates Pollution
	2 Method for the Removal of Nitrates and Phosphates
		2.1 Chemical Methods
		2.2 Adsorbents
		2.3 Bioremediation
	3 Removal of Inorganic Nutrients Using Chlorella sp. CSIRCSMCRI
		3.1 Collation of Wastewater and Nutrients Estimation
		3.2 Experimental Design for the Removal of Inorganic Nutrients from Wastewater Using Chlorella sp. CSIRCSMCRI
		3.3 Nutrients Uptake and Growth of Chlorella sp. CSIRCSMCRI
	4 Conclusion
	References
Bioremediation of Organic and Heavy Metal Co-contaminated Environments
	1 Introduction
	2 Metal Speciation and Bioavailability
	3 Heavy Metals Toxicity
	4 Bioremediation
	5 Microbial-Based Bioremediation Mechanisms
	6 Biosorption
	7 Bioaccumulation
	8 Biotransformation
	9 Biomineralization
	10 Bioleaching
	11 Where Does Metal Remediation Take Place?
	12 Intracellular Sequestration
	13 Extracellular Sequestration
	14 Phytoremediation in Co-contaminated Sites
	15 Phytoremediation Strategies
	16 Phyto-Stabilization
	17 Phytoextraction
	18 Phytovolatilization
	19 Rhizo-Filtration
	20 Mycoremediation
	21 Co-contaminations with Heavy Metals and Organic Hydrocarbons
	22 Factors Influencing the Microbial Remediation of Heavy Metal
	23 Microbial Tolerance and Removal Mechanisms
	24 Microalgae in Bioremediation or Phyco-Remediation
	25 Enhanced Bioremediation of Co-contaminated Sites
	26 Engineered Bacteria
	27 Engineered Plants
	28 Bio-attenuation
	29 Bio-stimulation
	30 Bioaugmentation
	31 Conclusion and Future Aspects
	References
Algal Microbial Symbiotic System-From a Biological Process to Biorefinery
	1 Introduction
	2 Potential of Microalgae in WWT
		2.1 Sources and Composition of WW for Microalgae Cultivation
		2.2 Microalgae Cultivation Systems
		2.3 Integration of New Techniques in Microalgae Cultivation
	3 A Framework of Algal Consortium
		3.1 Microalgal-Bacterial Consortium
		3.2 Microalgal-Fungal Consortium
		3.3 Microalgal-Yeast Consortium
		3.4 Microalgal—Microalgal Consortia
	4 Principle of Pollutant Removal by Algal Consortia
		4.1 Algal–bacterial Biofilms
		4.2 Photodegradation of Pollutants
		4.3 Biodegradation
		4.4 Phytoremediation
		4.5 Quorum Sensing (QS)
	5 Factors Affecting Symbiotic Relationship
		5.1 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
		5.2 Substrate Concentration
		5.3 Carbon-di-Oxide (CO2)
		5.4 pH
		5.5 Light Exposure
		5.6 Algal Volume
		5.7 Temperature
		5.8 Salinity
		5.9 Algal–Bacterial Symbiosis
	6 Applications of Harvested Biomass
		6.1 Biodiesel
		6.2 Biohydrogen
		6.3 Biogas
		6.4 Biochar and Biofertilizer
	7 Algal Biorefinery: Influential Factors, Challenges, and Advancements
		7.1 Algal Symbiosis: Momentous Factors
		7.2 Challenges
		7.3 Advancements
	8 Conclusion
	References
Emphasizes the Role of Nanotechnology in Bioremediation of Pollutants
	1 Introduction
	2 Nanotechnology—A New Frontier in Science and Technology
		2.1 A Frontier in Food Science
		2.2 A Frontier in Agriculture
		2.3 A Frontier in Medicine
	3 Principles of Bioremediation
		3.1 Types of Bioremediations
	4 The Significance/Impact of Bioremediation
	5 Nano-Bioremidiation
	6 Bioremediation Utilization of Nanomaterials and Nanoparticles
		6.1 Heavy Metal Toxic Effects
		6.2 The Presence of Heavy Metals in Sewage
	7 Application of Nanoparticles in Bioremediation
		7.1 Nanoscale Zero-Valent Metals
		7.2 Engineering Polymeric Nanoparticles for Bioremediation Purposes
		7.3 The Use of Nanoparticles as a Pollution Control Tool
		7.4 Green Nanoremediation
		7.5 Dendrimers
	8 Sensing of Pollutants
		8.1 Biological Contaminants
		8.2 Inorganic or Non-biological Contaminants
	9 Pollution Prevention
	10 Conclusion and Future Prospective
	References
Treatment of Trace Organics and Emerging Contaminants Using Traditional and Advanced Technologies
	1 Introduction
	2 Global Occurrence of Trace Organic Compounds and Emerging Contaminants
	3 Removal of Trace Organic Compounds and Emerging Contaminants
		3.1 Membrane Filtration Processes
		3.2 Biological Treatment Processes
		3.3 Adsorption Processes
		3.4 Electrocoagulation Processes
		3.5 Microbial Fuel Cell Processes
		3.6 Advanced Oxidation Processes
		3.7 Ion Exchange Processes
	4 Coupled Treatment Processes
	5 Knowledge Gaps and Prospects
	6 Conclusions
	References