Industrial Process Sensors

Industrial Process Sensors......Page 1
Dedication......Page 4
Contents......Page 5
Preface......Page 9
Acknowledgments......Page 10
About the Author......Page 11
Notes......Page 12
1.1 Motivation for Process Measurement......Page 15
Contents......Page 0
1.2 Process Sensors......Page 16
1.3 The Physics of Measurement......Page 18
2.1 The Sensor Model......Page 21
2.2 Units of Measure......Page 22
2.3 Simple Statistics......Page 23
2.4 Sources of Error......Page 25
2.5 Analysis of Error......Page 27
Suggested Reading......Page 29
3.1 Sound......Page 30
3.2 Waves......Page 32
3.3 The Wave Equation and Its Solutions......Page 34
3.4.2 Refraction......Page 36
3.4.3 Superposition and Interference......Page 38
3.4.5 Doppler Shift......Page 40
3.4.6 Diffraction......Page 42
3.5 Sound Generation and Detection......Page 43
3.6 Appendix on the Wave Equation......Page 44
Suggested Reading......Page 46
4.1 Electromagnetic Waves......Page 47
4.2.1 Mirrors......Page 50
4.2.3 Beam Splitters......Page 51
4.2.4 Lenses......Page 52
4.2.6 Filters......Page 53
4.2.7 Modulators......Page 54
4.3.1 Incoherent Sources......Page 56
4.3.2 Lasers......Page 57
4.3.3 Detectors......Page 58
Suggested Reading......Page 60
5.1.1 Potential and Current......Page 61
5.1.2 Resistance......Page 66
5.1.3 Capacitance and Inductance......Page 67
5.2.1 Diodes......Page 70
5.2.2 Transistors......Page 71
5.3 Amplifiers......Page 72
5.4 Digitization......Page 75
Suggested Reading......Page 77
6.1 Introduction......Page 79
6.2.1 Energetic Electromagnetic Waves......Page 81
6.2.2 Energetic Particles......Page 82
6.3.1 Nuclear Decay......Page 83
6.3.2 X-Ray Generators......Page 84
6.4.1 Counters......Page 85
6.4.2 Imaging Devices......Page 86
6.5 Safety Considerations......Page 89
Suggested Reading......Page 90
7.2 Temperature Sensors......Page 91
7.2.1 Thermistors......Page 92
7.2.2 Thermocouples......Page 94
7.2.3 Infrared Thermometers......Page 95
7.3.1 Diaphragms......Page 97
7.4 Level Sensors......Page 99
7.4.2 Ultrasonic and Acoustic Sensors......Page 100
7.5.1 Heat Transfer Sensors......Page 101
7.5.2 Ultrasonic Sensors......Page 102
7.5.3 Electromagnetic Sensors......Page 105
7.5.4 Differential Pressure Sensors......Page 106
Suggested Reading......Page 107
8.1.1 Representation of Particle Size......Page 109
8.1.2 Types of PSD Instruments......Page 113
8.2.2 Optical Counting......Page 114
8.2.3 The Normalization of Counting Data......Page 116
8.2.4 Focused Back-Reflection Method......Page 119
8.3.1 Static Light Scattering......Page 120
8.3.2 Dynamic Light Scattering......Page 123
8.4 Ultrasonic Attenuation Spectroscopy......Page 125
8.4.1 Theoretical Background......Page 126
8.4.2 Hardware Considerations......Page 131
8.4.3 A Practical Ultrasonic Spectrometer......Page 133
Validation of the ECAH Model......Page 138
Validation of the Inverse Algorithm......Page 139
Monitoring and Control of Milling......Page 140
Precipitation......Page 144
8.5 Appendix on Recovery of the PSD......Page 147
Suggested Reading......Page 151
9.1 Introduction......Page 153
9.2 Direct Imaging......Page 154
9.3 Tomographic Imaging......Page 155
9.4 Case Study: Crystallization......Page 159
9.5 Case Study: Granulation......Page 161
9.6 Case Study: Media Milling......Page 166
Suggested Reading......Page 170
10.1 Radiation Gauges......Page 171
10.2 Ultrasonic Thickness Gauging of Ultrathin Films......Page 172
10.2.1 Theory of Measurement......Page 173
10.2.3 Effect of Ambient Conditions......Page 175
Pressure Dependence......Page 177
Humidity Dependence......Page 178
Radiation Pattern......Page 180
X-Y Sensitivity......Page 182
Effective Spot Size......Page 185
Frequency Response......Page 188
10.2.5 Summary......Page 189
10.3 Optical Thickness Measurements for Single and Multilayer Films......Page 190
10.3.1 Principle of Operation......Page 191
10.3.2 The Optical Sensor and Test Block......Page 192
10.3.3 Single Film Thickness Measurements......Page 194
10.3.4 Application to Multilayer Films......Page 196
10.4 Appendix on the Thin-Plate Approximation......Page 197
10.5.1 Laser Beams and Gaussian Optics......Page 202
10.5.3 Depth of Focus......Page 204
10.6 Appendix on Thickness Correction......Page 205
10.6.1 Single-Ply Films......Page 206
10.6.2 Multi-Ply Laminates......Page 207
Suggested Reading......Page 209
11.1 Identification of Polymer Type......Page 211
11.1.1 NIR Absorbance Spectra......Page 212
11.1.2 Neural Networks......Page 214
11.1.3 Hardware Implementation......Page 215
11.2 Contamination Detection in Molten Polymer......Page 217
11.3.1 Applications of Reinforced Polymers......Page 219
11.3.2 Measurement Principles......Page 221
11.3.3 Hardware Implementation......Page 223
11.3.4 Experimental Results......Page 224
11.4 Measurement of Part Dimensions Using Radioscopy......Page 226
11.4.1 Concept......Page 227
11.4.3 Depth-of-Flaw Measurements......Page 228
11.4.4 Wall Thickness Measurements......Page 230
11.5 Appendix on the Calculation of Loading......Page 231
References......Page 234