In Vivo Optical Imaging of Brain Function, Second Edition (Frontiers in Neuroscience)

Cover Page......Page 1
Title: IN VIVO OPTICAL IMAGING of BRAIN FUNCTION, SECOND EDITION......Page 6
ISBN 1420076841......Page 7
Contents......Page 8
Preface......Page 10
The Editor......Page 11
Contributors List......Page 12
CONTENTS......Page 15
1.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 16
1.2.1 GENETICALLY ENGINEERED FP CALCIUM SENSORS......Page 17
1.2.2 REPORTERS OF TRANSMITTER RELEASE: PHLUORINS......Page 19
1.2.3 GENETICALLY ENGINEERED FP VOLTAGE SENSORS......Page 21
1.3.1 VIRUS VECTORS......Page 23
1.3.4 CHEMICALLY INDUCIBLE SYSTEMS FOR TEMPORAL CONTROL OF REPORTER EXPRESSION......Page 24
1.4.1 OPTICAL SETUP......Page 25
1.4.2 PHYSICAL SETUP FOR IN VIVO IMAGING......Page 27
1.4.3 REPEATED, CHRONIC IN VIVO IMAGING......Page 28
1.4.4 IMAGING IN AWAKE, HEAD-FIXED ANIMALS......Page 29
1.5.1 PHOTOBLEACHING......Page 30
1.5.2 HEMODYNAMIC ARTIFACTS......Page 31
1.5.3 GREEN AUTOFLUORESCENCE SIGNALS......Page 33
1.5.5 ESTIMATING ACTION POTENTIAL FIRING FROM OPTICAL SIGNALS......Page 35
1.6.1 SPH IMAGING OF ODORANT-EVOKED ACTIVITY AND PRESYNAPTIC MODULATION OF TRANSMITTER RELEASE......Page 36
1.6.1.1 SpH as a Reporter of Transmitter Release......Page 37
1.6.1.2 Using SpH to Probe the Organization of Presynaptic Inhibition In Vivo......Page 41
1.6.2 IMAGING POSTSYNAPTIC ODOR REPRESENTATIONS WITH GCAMP2......Page 43
1.7 DISCUSSION AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS......Page 45
REFERENCES......Page 46
2.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 51
2.2.1 TWO-PHOTON MICROSCOPY......Page 52
2.2.2 MONITORING CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION......Page 54
2.3.2 LASER-SCANNING MODES FOR MEASUREMENTS ON VARIOUS TIMESCALES......Page 56
2.3.3 TRADITIONAL DYES AND FLUORESCENT PROTEINS......Page 58
2.3.4 ACTIVITY-DEPENDENT PROBES......Page 59
2.4.1 CALCIUM INDICATOR TYPES AND LOADING METHODS......Page 60
2.4.2 INFERRING NEURONAL SPIKING ACTIVITY FROM CALCIUM SIGNALS......Page 62
2.5.1 IMAGING INDIVIDUAL CELLS......Page 64
2.5.2 IMAGING POPULATION ACTIVITY......Page 65
2.6 DISCUSSION......Page 67
REFERENCES......Page 69
CONTENTS......Page 73
3.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 75
3.2.1.1 Direct Imaging......Page 76
3.2.1.2 Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy......Page 77
3.2.2 TWO-PHOTON LASER SCANNING MICROSCOPY FOR STRONGLY SCATTERING PREPARATIONS......Page 78
3.3.1 FOCAL VOLUMES......Page 80
3.3.1.2 Ablation......Page 81
3.3.3 PHOTOBLEACHING AND PHOTODAMAGE BY TWO-PHOTON EXCITATION......Page 83
3.3.4 LIGHT SOURCE......Page 84
3.3.5.1 Laser Beam Profile......Page 86
3.3.5.2 Reshaping the Laser Beam......Page 87
3.3.6 DESIGN OF A SCAN SYSTEM......Page 89
3.3.6.1 Constraints on Axial Distances and Optical Apertures......Page 92
3.3.6.2 Two-Dimensional Scanning......Page 94
3.3.7 FLUORESCENT LIGHT DETECTION......Page 95
3.3.7.1 Placement of Detector Assembly......Page 96
3.3.7.2 Constraints for Detection Elements......Page 97
3.3.7.3 Emitted Photon Yield per Laser Pulse......Page 99
3.4.1 OPTICAL AND MECHANICAL......Page 100
3.4.3 PATH FROM LASERS TO MICROSCOPE......Page 102
3.4.4 PATH ALONG MICROSCOPE: TWO-PHOTON EXCITATION......Page 104
3.4.5 PATH ALONG MICROSCOPE: PLASMA-MEDIATED ABLATION......Page 106
3.4.6.1 Detector Assembly......Page 107
3.4.6.2 Collection Filters and Optics......Page 109
3.4.6.3 Photodetectors......Page 110
3.4.6.4 Detection Electronics......Page 111
3.4.7 SCAN AND ACQUISITION ELECTRONICS......Page 112
3.4.8 SOFTWARE......Page 113
3.5.1.3 Ablation Threshold......Page 114
3.5.1.4 Spatial Uniformity......Page 115
3.5.2.1 Autocorrelation......Page 116
3.5.3 ALIGNMENT OF THE IMAGING AND ABLATION FOCI......Page 118
3.5.4.1 In Vivo Cortical Blood Flow......Page 120
3.5.4.2 Perturbation of Vasculature and Neuronal Processes......Page 121
SCANNERS......Page 123
LASER AND ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT......Page 124
APPENDIX B: BASICS OF INTERFEROMETRIC AUTOCORRELATION......Page 125
REFERENCES......Page 126
CONTENTS......Page 131
4.1.1 AN OVERVIEW OF SOFTWARE FOR TWO-PHOTON LASER SCANNING MICROSCOPY......Page 132
4.1.4 MPSCOPE 1.0: TECHNICAL CHOICES......Page 133
4.1.4.1 Hardware Principles......Page 134
4.1.4.2 Extensive Multithreading......Page 136
4.1.4.3 Object-Oriented, Native-Compiled Code......Page 137
4.1.4.4 Componentization......Page 141
4.1.4.5 ActiveX Scripting......Page 142
4.2.1 GENERAL FEATURES......Page 144
4.2.3 MOTION CONTROL SUPPORT......Page 145
4.2.4 ANALOG INTEGRATION......Page 148
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 151
APPENDIX......Page 152
REFERENCES......Page 155
CONTENTS......Page 157
5.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 158
5.2 MECHANISMS OF OPTICAL RESPONSES......Page 160
5.2.3 CELLULAR SWELLING......Page 161
5.2.4 TEMPORAL RESOLUTION OF LIGHT-SCATTERING CHANGES......Page 162
5.2.6 PERIPHERAL VERSUS DIRECT ILLUMINATION......Page 163
5.3.1 IMAGER DESIGN......Page 164
5.3.2 DIGITIZING HARDWARE......Page 165
5.3.3 RETINAL IMAGING......Page 166
5.3.3.1 Preparation of Isolated Retinas......Page 167
5.3.3.2 NIR Light Microscopy......Page 168
5.3.3.3 NIR Light OCT......Page 169
5.4.2 BRAINSTEM AND CORTICAL RECORDING FROM THE RAT......Page 170
5.5 FAST-SCATTERED LIGHT CHANGES IN ISOLATED NERVES......Page 172
5.5.1 TEASING APART POLARIZATION AND SWELLING EFFECTS......Page 174
5.5.2 FAST CCD OPTICAL IMAGING OF RETINAL NEURAL ACTIVITY......Page 175
5.5.3 FAST OCT RECORDING OF RETINAL ACTIVATION......Page 178
5.6 SUMMARY......Page 179
REFERENCES......Page 180
CONTENTS......Page 185
6.2.1 OPTICAL MEASUREMENT OF MEMBRANE POTENTIAL......Page 186
6.2.2 VOLTAGE-SENSITIVE PROBES FOR IN VIVO APPLICATIONS......Page 187
6.3.1 SURGERY AND CORTICAL STAINING WITH RH1691......Page 188
6.3.3 DATA ANALYSIS......Page 189
6.4.1 ORIGINS OF RECORDED OPTICAL SIGNALS......Page 191
6.4.2 RH1691 REPORTS SUPRAGRANULAR MEMBRANE POTENTIAL CHANGES IN ANESTHETIZED MICE......Page 192
6.5.1 EXPERIMENTAL STRATEGIES......Page 195
6.5.2 STATE-DEPENDENT SENSORY PROCESSING......Page 197
6.6 DISCUSSION......Page 199
6.7.1 NEW DYES AND NONLINEAR OPTICS......Page 200
6.7.3 FIBER OPTIC VSD IMAGING......Page 201
REFERENCES......Page 202
CONTENTS......Page 207
7.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 208
7.2 THE PRINCIPLE UNDERLYING FLAVOPROTEIN FLUORESCENCE IMAGING......Page 209
7.3.1 SURGICAL PROCEDURES REQUIRED FOR IMAGING EXPERIMENTS IN ANESTHETIZED ANIMALS......Page 211
7.3.3 ANALYTICAL METHODS......Page 212
7.4.1 EXPERIENCE-DEPENDENT PLASTICITY IN THE AUDITORY CORTEX......Page 213
7.4.2 EXPERIENCE-DEPENDENT PLASTICITY IN THE VISUAL CORTEX......Page 216
7.4.3 EXPERIENCE-DEPENDENT PLASTICITY IN THE SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX......Page 220
7.5.1 MERITS OF TRANSCRANIAL FLAVOPROTEIN FLUORESCENCE IMAGING......Page 222
7.5.2 DEMERITS OF TRANSCRANIAL FLAVOPROTEIN FLUORESCENCE IMAGING......Page 223
7.6.1 TRANSCRANIAL CONTROL OF NEURAL ACTIVITIES......Page 224
7.6.2 TRANSCRANIAL IMAGING USING TWO-PHOTON MICROSCOPY......Page 226
REFERENCES......Page 227
CONTENTS......Page 235
8.2.1 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NEURAL ACTIVITY AND NEURONAL METABOLISM......Page 236
8.2.2.1 Review of Brain Metabolism and Glucose Utilization......Page 238
8.2.2.2 Localization of the Signal in Cells and Tissue......Page 256
8.2.3 IMAGING OPPORTUNITIES FROM NEURONAL METABOLISM......Page 259
8.3.1 EQUIPMENT AND METHODOLOGY......Page 262
8.3.2.1 Signal Strength......Page 263
8.3.2.2 Spatial Resolution......Page 264
8.3.2.3 Time Course and Temporal Resolution......Page 266
8.3.2.4 Vascular Artifacts......Page 267
8.3.2.6 Analysis Techniques......Page 268
8.3.2.7 Possible Pitfalls......Page 269
8.4.2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF FA IMAGING IN VIVO......Page 271
8.4.3 FUNCTIONAL IMAGING IN VITRO......Page 274
8.5 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS......Page 276
REFERENCES......Page 277
9.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 285
9.2.1 ADVANTAGES OF APPLYING ISOI TO THE RAT PRIMARY SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX......Page 287
9.2.2 INTRINSIC SIGNALS AND THEIR SOURCES......Page 288
9.2.3 STIMULUS-EVOKED INTRINSIC SIGNALS......Page 289
9.2.4 BIOLOGICAL NOISE......Page 294
9.2.5 THE IMAGING CAMERA......Page 298
9.2.6 IMAGING PLASTICITY IN SENSORY CORTEX......Page 300
9.3.1 ANESTHESIA......Page 301
9.3.3 IMAGING SET-UP......Page 302
9.3.4 DATA COLLECTION......Page 303
9.3.5 DATA ANALYSIS AND QUANTIFICATION......Page 304
9.3.6 ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR DATA ANALYSIS AND QUANTIFICATION......Page 306
9.4 SUCCESSFUL APPLICATION OF ISOI FOR STUDYING ADULT PLASTICITY OF FUNCTIONAL REPRESENTATIONS......Page 309
9.5 FUTURE DIRECTIONS......Page 313
REFERENCES......Page 314
10.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 317
10.1.1 NEOCORTEX AND CORTICAL MAPS......Page 318
10.1.2 CONVENTIONAL METHOD FOR BRAIN MAPPING......Page 320
10.2.2 THE BASICS OF THE FOURIER APPROACH......Page 322
10.2.3 STIMULUS DESIGN......Page 323
10.2.3.2 Stimulus for Orientation and Direction Preference......Page 324
10.2.4 DATA ACQUISITION AND IMAGING SYSTEM......Page 325
10.2.5 ANALYSIS AND VISUALIZATION......Page 326
10.3.1 SURGICAL PREPARATION......Page 327
10.3.4 DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS......Page 328
10.4.1 RELATIVE RETINOTOPY......Page 329
10.4.2 HEMODYNAMIC DELAY......Page 331
10.4.3 ABSOLUTE RETINOTOPY......Page 332
10.4.4 ORIENTATION AND DIRECTION PREFERENCE......Page 333
10.4.5 VALIDATION OF ORIENTATION MAPS......Page 335
10.4.6 STABILITY AND VARIATION OF ORIENTATION AND DIRECTION MAPS......Page 336
10.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 339
REFERENCES......Page 340
11.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 343
11.2 THEORY OF NEUTRAL RED IMAGING......Page 344
11.3.1 ANIMAL PREPARATION......Page 345
11.3.3 ELECTRICAL STIMULATIONS, ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL RECORDING, AND PHARMACOLOGY......Page 346
11.3.5 DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS......Page 347
11.4 NATURE AND ORIGIN OF THE NEUTRAL RED FLUORESCENCE SIGNAL......Page 348
11.5 PROPERTIES OF NEUTRAL RED IMAGING REVEALED BY PARALLEL FIBER STIMULATION......Page 351
11.6.1 PARASAGITTAL ORGANIZATION OF THE CEREBELLAR CORTEX......Page 355
11.6.2 OPTICAL IMAGING OF PLASTICITY AT THE PARALLEL FIBER-PURKINJE CELL SYNAPSE......Page 357
11.6.3 SPREADING ACIDIFICATION AND DEPRESSION......Page 358
11.7 DISCUSSION AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS......Page 360
REFERENCES......Page 362
CONTENTS......Page 369
12.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 370
12.2.1 MODULATED IMAGING SPECTROSCOPY......Page 371
12.2.4 SPECTRAL ANALYSIS–CHROMOPHORE CALCULATION......Page 373
12.2.6.2 MI Measurement Protocol......Page 374
12.2.6.3 Spatial Frequency Sensitivity Analysis......Page 375
12.3.1 BASELINE MI SPECTROSCOPY......Page 376
12.3.2 DYNAMIC MI SPECTROSCOPY OF CSD......Page 379
12.3.3 DYNAMIC MI SPECTROSCOPY OF STROKE......Page 387
12.4 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS......Page 388
REFERENCES......Page 389
CONTENTS......Page 393
13.1.1 HISTORY OF THE TECHNIQUE......Page 394
13.2.2 CYTOCHROMES......Page 395
13.2.4 INTRINSIC FLUORESCENCE......Page 397
13.3.2 MICROSCOPE AND LIGHT SOURCE......Page 398
13.3.4 LONI INTRAOPERATIVE OIS SYSTEM......Page 399
13.3.5 LONI EXPERIMENTAL PARADIGMS......Page 400
13.3.6 NOISE REDUCTION......Page 401
13.3.7 REGISTRATION WITH OTHER MODALITIES: FMRI......Page 402
13.4.1 THE TIME COURSE OF OPTICAL SIGNALS IN HUMANS......Page 404
13.4.2 CORRELATION WITH ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES......Page 406
13.4.3 OIS OF SENSORIMOTOR CORTEX......Page 407
13.4.4 INTRAOPERATIVE MAPS OF LANGUAGE......Page 408
13.4.5 IMAGING OF CORTICAL PATHOLOGY......Page 409
13.4.6 COMPARISON WITH BOLD FMRI......Page 410
13.5.1 2D OPTICAL SPECTROSCOPY......Page 414
13.6.1 INTRAOPERATIVE OPTICAL IMAGING......Page 415
13.6.3 RESEARCH UTILITY......Page 416
REFERENCES......Page 418
CONTENTS......Page 423
14.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 424
14.2 THEORY OF OPTICAL IMAGING......Page 425
14.2.1 PHOTON DIFFUSION IN TISSUE......Page 428
14.2.2 THEORETICAL OPTICAL SENSITIVITY TO THE BRAIN......Page 430
14.2.3 DIFFUSE OPTICAL IMAGING AND TOMOGRAPHY......Page 431
14.3 INSTRUMENTATION FOR BRAIN STUDIES......Page 435
14.3.1 NIRS INSTRUMENT......Page 436
14.3.2 IMAGING INSTRUMENTATION......Page 438
14.4 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN OF OPTICAL STUDIES......Page 439
14.4.1 DESIGN EXAMPLE 1: NIRS BASELINE RECORDING......Page 442
14.4.2 DESIGN EXAMPLE 2: FUNCTIONAL NIRS......Page 443
14.5.1 METHODS FOR THE REDUCTION OF MOTION......Page 444
14.6.1 LINEAR FILTERING TECHNIQUES......Page 447
14.6.2 PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS......Page 448
14.6.4 LINEAR MODEL OF HEMODYNAMIC CHANGE......Page 449
14.6.5 HOMER—A GRAPHICAL INTERFACE FOR FUNCTIONAL OPTICAL SIGNALS......Page 451
14.7 MULTIMODAL AND VALIDATION STUDIES......Page 452
14.8 SUMMARY......Page 455
REFERENCES......Page 456
CONTENTS......Page 465
15.1.2 WHY NON-INVASIVE FUNCTIONAL BRAIN IMAGING?......Page 466
15.1.3.1 Hemodynamic/Metabolic Methods......Page 467
15.2.1 THE SCATTERING SIGNAL......Page 468
15.2.2.1 Continuous vs. Time-Resolved Measures......Page 469
15.2.2.2 Penetration and 3D Reconstruction......Page 470
15.2.2.3 Data Collection and Artifact Correction......Page 472
15.2.2.4 Signal Processing and Statistical Analysis......Page 473
15.3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS......Page 475
15.3.1 VISUAL MODALITY......Page 477
15.3.2 AUDITORY MODALITY......Page 479
15.3.4 MOTOR MODALITY......Page 480
15.3.5 COGNITIVE STUDIES......Page 481
Example 1: Application of EROS to the Study of Sentence Comprehension (Tse et al.)......Page 482
Example 2: Application of EROS to the Analysis of Frontal Activity in an Oddball Task (Low et al.)......Page 483
15.4.3 UNRESOLVED ISSUES AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS......Page 485
REFERENCES......Page 486
Index (with page links)......Page 491
Color Insert......Page 239
Back Page......Page 503