Impact of COVID-19 on Emerging Contaminants: One Health Framework for Risk Assessment and Remediation

Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
Editors and Contributors
Part I Monitoring and Occurrence of Emerging Contaminants
1 A First Report of Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in a Large West-Flowing River in Southern India
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Study Area
	1.3 Materials and Methods
		1.3.1 Water Sampling
		1.3.2 PFSAs Extraction
		1.3.3 Instrumental Analysis
		1.3.4 Quality Control/Quality Assurance
	1.4 Results and Discussions
		1.4.1 Levels of PFAS in Other Stations
	1.5 Conclusions
	References
2 Passive Sampling Techniques for Monitoring of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in Water Matrix: Trends from 2016 to 2020
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Methods
	2.3 Passive Sampling: Theory and Calibration
	2.4 Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Samplers (POCIS)
	2.5 DGT
	2.6 Chemcatcher®
	2.7 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
	References
3 Distribution of Emerging Contaminants, and Antimicrobial Resistance: Occurrence, Toxicity, Risk Assessment, and Removal
	3.1 Introduction
		3.1.1 Occurrence, Source, and Fate of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs)
	3.2 Effect of PPCPs
		3.2.1 Aquatic Life
		3.2.2 Humans
	3.3 Risk Assessment Studies
		3.3.1 Risk Characterization
		3.3.2 Constraints
	3.4 Biological Remediation
		3.4.1 Responsible Factors
		3.4.2 Biodegradation Pathways
		3.4.3 Intermediate Products Formation
		3.4.4 Removal Efficiencies
	3.5 Conclusions
	References
4 Realistic Approach for Determination Groundwater Pollution and Source Accounting
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Sources of Groundwater
	4.3 Sources of Groundwater Pollution
		4.3.1 Groundwater Pollution by Natural Activities
		4.3.2 Groundwater Pollution by Anthropogenic Activities
	4.4 Groundwater Parameters
	4.5 Impacts of Groundwater Pollution
	4.6 Preventive Measures for Groundwater Pollution
		4.6.1 Social Accountability
		4.6.2 Industrial Accountability
	4.7 Future Scopes
	4.8 Conclusions
	References
Part II Sources, Effects and Ecotoxicity of Emerging Contaminants
5 Emerging Contaminants: Sources, Effects, and Treatment by New Adsorption Methods
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 ECs and Associated Health Risks
		5.2.1 Pharmaceutical Debris-Based ECs
		5.2.2 Personal Care Products-Based ECs
		5.2.3 Pesticides, Biocides, and Antimicrobials-Based ECs
		5.2.4 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon-Based ECs
		5.2.5 Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Dioxins-Based ECs
		5.2.6 Dyes-Based ECs
	5.3 Recognition, Assessment, and Management of ECs
		5.3.1 Activated Carbon-Facilitated Adsorption
		5.3.2 Biochar-Facilitated Adsorption
		5.3.3 Nanomaterials-Facilitated Adsorption
	5.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
	References
6 Co-occurrence of Geogenic, Microbial, and Anthropogenic Emerging Contaminants: Ecotoxicity and Relative Environmental Risks
	6.1 Introduction
		6.1.1 Geogenic Emerging Contaminants (GECs)
		6.1.2 Anthropogenic Emerging Contaminants (AECs)
		6.1.3 Microbial Emerging Contaminants (MECs)
	6.2 Co-occurrence of AECs, MECs, and GECs in Nature
	6.3 Ecotoxicological and Relative Environmental Risks from AECs, MECs, and GECs
	6.4 Conclusions
	References
7 IoT as an Assistive Technology for Community-Based Water Management Practices During COVID-19 Pandemic and Beyond
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Research Methodology
	7.3 Government Initiatives and Water Governance
		7.3.1 Rainwater Harvesting
		7.3.2 Atal Bhujal Yojana
		7.3.3 Interlinking River Project
		7.3.4 Need for Water Governance
	7.4 Need and Role of IoT in Water Management
	7.5 Community-Based Water Management Practices
		7.5.1 Tanks in Karnataka
		7.5.2 Stepwell
		7.5.3 Pyne-Ahar
		7.5.4 Kuls and Khuls
		7.5.5 Tanka
		7.5.6 Bamboo Drip Irrigation
	7.6 Discussion and Strategies
		7.6.1 Strategies to Improve Water Management Using IoT
	7.7 Conclusion
	References
8 Water Pollution Hazards of Single-Use Face Mask in Indian Riverine and Marine System
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Current State of the Problem
	8.3 Composition and Different Types of Face Masks
		8.3.1 Surgical Facemask
		8.3.2 N95 Facemasks
		8.3.3 KN95 Facemask³
	8.4 Occurrence, Fate, and Transport of Masks in Water Bodies
		8.4.1 Occurrence and Detection of Micro and Nano-Plastics from Masks
		8.4.2 Interaction Between Microplastics and Other Pollutants
		8.4.3 Transformation and Proliferation of Antimicrobial Resistance Bacteria
		8.4.4 Rivers as Transport Pathways to the Ocean
		8.4.5 Partitioning and Mass Flow Behaviour in Riverine and Marine Systems
	8.5 Hazards of Used Facemask on Marine Life and Human Health
	8.6 Risk of COVID Spreading Through Water Bodies
	8.7 Biohazard Risk Mitigation Guidelines
	8.8 Future Steps to Control Microplastic Pollution Through Facemasks
	8.9 Future Direction and Conclusion
	References
9 Impact of Arabidopsis thaliana Root Exudates on Dissimilatory Nitrate Reduction to Ammonium (DNRA) Activities in Shewanella loihica PV-4 and Agricultural Soil Enrichments
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Materials and Methods
		9.2.1 Root Exudates Collection from Arabidopsis thaliana Plant and Chemical Characterization
		9.2.2 Synthesis of Artificial Root Exudates
		9.2.3 Evaluation of the Effects of Arabidopsis thaliana Root Exudates or Artificial Root Exudates on the Denitrification-Versus-DNRA Regulation in Shewanella loihica Cultures
		9.2.4 Evaluation of the Effects of A. thaliana Root Exudates or Artificial Root Exudates on the Denitrification-Versus-DNRA Competition in Agricultural Soil Microbial Extracts
		9.2.5 Analytical Procedures for Measurement of N2O, NO3 - , NO2 -  and NH4 +
		9.2.6 Measurement of 15 NH4 +  Produced from Reduction of 15 NO3 -  Via DNRA
		9.2.7 Statistical Analysis
	9.3 Results
		9.3.1 Effects of A. Thaliana Root Exudates and Artificial Root Exudates on the Dual NO3 -  Reduction Pathways in S. loihica strain PV-4
		9.3.2 Effects of Artificial Root Exudates on the NO3 -  Fate in Agricultural Soil Enrichments
	9.4 Discussion
	9.5 Implications and Future Research
	9.6 Conclusions
	References
10 Microalgal Bioremediation of Emerging Contaminants in Domestic Wastewater
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Source and Occurrence of Emerging Contaminants
	10.3 Algae-Based Domestic Sewage Treatment
	10.4 Bioremediation of Emerging Contaminants
		10.4.1 Bioadsorption of ECs
		10.4.2 Bioaccumulation of ECs
		10.4.3 Intracellular and Extracellular Biodegradation of ECs
		10.4.4 Novel Approaches
	10.5 Future Scenario
	10.6 Conclusions
	References
Part III Conventional and Advanced Treatment Strategies
11 Emerging Contaminants in Water and Wastewater: Remediation Perspectives and Innovations in Treatment Technologies
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Emerging Contaminants as Aquatic Environmental Hazards
	11.3 Treatment Technologies
	11.4 Advantages and Challenges in Conventional Treatment Technology
	11.5 Advance Treatment Technology
		11.5.1 Removal by Adsorption
		11.5.2 Membrane-Based Processes
		11.5.3 Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs)
	11.6 Combined Treatment Technology
	11.7 Future Research Perspectives
	11.8 Conclusion
	References
12 Adsorption–Photocatalysis Dual-Modality Approach for Removal of PPCPs from Aquatic Environment
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Adsorption–Photocatalysis—Dual-Modality Approach
	12.3 Photocatalysts Used for Environmental Remediation
	12.4 Application to Real Water Matrices
	12.5 Challenges in Designing Adsorption–Photocatalysis Material
	12.6 Concluding Remark and Future Needs
	References
13 Components of Aquaculture as Sources of Environmental Pollution and Available Remedial Measures
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Aquaculture Components as Sources of Pollution
		13.2.1 Aquaculture Ingredients (Feed, Fertilizer, Chemicals, Etc.)
		13.2.2 Animal Excretions (Faeces, Ammonia, Methane, CO2 Etc.)
		13.2.3 Inedible Wastes
	13.3 Remedial Measures for Aquaculture Waste Removal
		13.3.1 Innovative Culture Methods
		13.3.2 Physical, Chemical, and Microbial Treatment of Wastewater
		13.3.3 Using Aquaculture Wastewater for Irrigating Agriculture Crops
		13.3.4 Using Aquaculture Wastewater for Culturing Algae (Algiculture)
	13.4 Conclusions
	References
14 Recent Advances in Wetland-Based Tertiary Treatment Technologies for PPCPs Removal from Wastewater
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Occurrence of PPCPs in Wastewater and STPs
	14.3 Existing Treatment Technologies for PPCPs Removal
		14.3.1 Constructed Wetlands (CWs) for PPCPs Removal
		14.3.2 PPCPs Properties Affecting the Removal Pathway during Treatment by CWs
	14.4 Feasibility of Hybrid Systems Comprising CWs Combined with Other Treatment Processes
		14.4.1 Hybrid CW Systems
		14.4.2 Hybrid Treatment Systems Combining CW with Other Treatment Processes
		14.4.3 Hybrid Systems Other Than CWs for PPCPs Removal
	14.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects
	References
15 Removal of Free Cyanide (CN−) from Water and Wastewater Using Activated Carbon: A Review
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Free Cyanide (CN−) Removal by Activated Carbon
		15.2.1 Raw Activated Carbons for CN− Removal
		15.2.2 CN− Removal by Metal Impregnated AC
		15.2.3 Functional Group Incorporated AC for CN− Removal
		15.2.4 Biological Conjugation of AC for Simultaneous Adsorption and Biodegradation
	15.3 Mechanism of Cyanide Removal by Activated Carbon
		15.3.1 Role of AC Surface Functional Groups on Adsorption and Oxidation Removal of Cyanide
		15.3.2 Complexation of Cyanide with Metal Ions and Oxidation of M-CN Complexes
		15.3.3 Adsorption and Oxidation Over Impregnated/Ionic Metal Surfaces
	15.4 Modeling the Sorption of Cyanide onto Carbon Surface
		15.4.1 Adsorption Isotherm Modeling
		15.4.2 Kinetics Modeling
	15.5 Effect of Process Parameters on Cyanide Adsorption Over Activated Carbon
		15.5.1 Effect of Carbon Particle Size
		15.5.2 Effect of Aeration/Agitation
		15.5.3 Effect of Solution pH
		15.5.4 Effect of Temperature
		15.5.5 Effect of Contact Time
		15.5.6 Effect of Competitive Anions
	15.6 Regeneration of Cyanide Ladenned AC
	15.7 Cost Evaluation on the Use of Activated Carbon for Treatment of Cyanide Bearing Water and Wastewater
	15.8 Conclusions and Future Prospects
	References
16 Metal Carbides as Photocatalyst for Removal of Organic Effluents from Aqueous Solution
	16.1 A Brief Introduction to the Status of Water Pollution and Industrial Discharge
	16.2 Fundamentals and Mechanism of Photocatalysis
	16.3 Introduction to Transition Metal Carbides (TMCs)
	16.4 Transition Metal Carbide: A Potential Candidate as a Catalyst
	16.5 Preparation Techniques of TMCs: Low-Temperature Solid-State Reaction
	16.6 Structural Properties of TMCs
	16.7 TMCs: Remedy for Decomposition of Organic Pollutants
		16.7.1 Effect of Concentration (Pollutant and Catalyst)
		16.7.2 Effect of Illumination Source
		16.7.3 Effect of catalyst’s Composition
	16.8 Possible Degradation Mechanism
	16.9 Concluding Remarks
	References
17 Tackling COVID-19 in Wastewater: Treatment Technologies for Developing Nations
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Wastewater Treatment Processes for SARS-CoV-2 Control
		17.2.1 SARS-CoV-2 in Wastewater
		17.2.2 Surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 in Different Temperatures
		17.2.3 Potential Fate of SARS-CoV-2 in the Water Cycle—Worldwide Perspective
		17.2.4 Wastewater Treatment Technologies
	17.3 Disinfection Techniques
		17.3.1 Chlorine-Based Disinfection for SARS-CoV-2 Control
		17.3.2 Ozonation
		17.3.3 Ultraviolet (UV) Irradiation
		17.3.4 Improvement of Disinfection Properties
		17.3.5 Other Remedial Disinfection Actions to Control the Epidemic
	17.4 Future Perspectives
	17.5 Conclusion
	References