Immobilization Strategies: Biomedical, Bioengineering and Environmental Applications

Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Immobilization: Then and Now
	1 Introduction
	2 History of Immobilization
		2.1 The Pre-mature Phase (1916–1950)
		2.2 Maturation Phase (1960–1980)
		2.3 Advanced Designing Phase (1990–Present)
	3 Scaffolds: Significance in Immobilization
		3.1 Fundamentals of Biomedical Scaffolds
		3.2 Methods of Fabrication and Properties
		3.3 Biomedical Applications
		3.4 Immune Response and Future Outlook
	4 Immobilization in Biosensor Development
		4.1 Concept of Biosensors
		4.2 Advantages of Biosensor Over Conventional Technique
		4.3 Immobilization Strategy in Developing Biosensors
	5 Immobilization in Bioprocessing
		5.1 Bioprocess for Invert Sugar Syrups
		5.2 Immobilization of Invertase
	6 Immobilization in Bioremediation
		6.1 Bioremediation
		6.2 Uranium Bioremediation Using Natural Biosorbent
		6.3 Uranium Bioremediation Using Immobilized Biomaterials
		6.4 Outlook
	7 Biosimulation for Advancing Immobilization
		7.1 Computational Tools in Understanding and Improving Enzyme Immobilization
		7.2 Molecular Dynamics Simulation of Enzyme Immobilization
		7.3 Selection of Ideal Residues for Mutation and Designer Enzymes:
		7.4 Outlook
	References
Cell Immobilization Strategies for Tissue Engineering: Recent Trends and Future Perspectives
	1 Introduction
	2 Fundamentals of Cell Immobilization
	3 Types of Cell Immobilization
		3.1 Immobilization with Support Material
		3.2 Self-aggregation of Cells
	4 Bioreactors for Cell Immobilization
		4.1 Stirred Tank Reactor (STRs)
		4.2 Fluidized Bed Reactor (FBR)
		4.3 Airlift Bioreactor (ALR)
		4.4 Packed Bed Reactor (PBR)
		4.5 Membrane Bioreactor (MBR)
	5 Applications of Immobilized Cells in Tissue Engineering
		5.1 Recombinant Protein Production
		5.2 Regeneration of Bone-Like Tissue
		5.3 Cell Immobilization and Cartilage Tissue Engineering
		5.4 Diabetes and Cell Immobilization
		5.5 Neural Differentiation
		5.6 Angiostatin Release for Cancer Therapy
		5.7 Bioartificial Organs and Cell Immobilization
		5.8 Microfluidics for Cell Immobilization
	6 Challenges and Future Perspective
	7 Conclusion
	References
Strategies and Advancement in Growth Factor Immobilizable ECM for Tissue Engineering
	1 Introduction
	2 Immobilization of Functional Molecules
		2.1 Effectiveness of Immobilizing Functional Molecules in Biotechnology
		2.2 Immobilization of Growth Factors
	3 Organ-Specific Extracellular Matrix (ECM) and ECM-Modelized Material as a Substrate-Immobilizing Growth Factor
		3.1 Liver-Specific ECM (L-ECM)
		3.2 ECM-Modelized Material
	4 Applications of Substrates Capable of Immobilizing Growth Factors
		4.1 Effectiveness of Growth Factor Immobilization for Tissue Regeneration
		4.2 Various Applications of L-ECM and ECM-Modelized Material
		4.3 Decellularized Liver as a Template for Organ-Scaled Tissue Regeneration
	5 Pros and Cons of L-ECM and ECM-Modelized Material
	6 Conclusions
	References
Prospects of Cell Immobilization in Cancer Research and Immunotherapy
	1 Basics of Cell Immobilization
		1.1 Methods of Cell Immobilization
		1.2 Materials for Cell Immobilization
	2 Prospects of Cell Immobilization in Cancer Therapy
		2.1 Current Therapeutic Approaches for Cancer Management
		2.2 Necessity to Develop Cancer Vaccines
		2.3 Significance of Cellular Cancer Vaccines and the Role of Cell Immobilization
	3 Prospects of Cell Immobilization in Cancer Research
		3.1 Cell Immobilization in 3D Tumeroid Generation
		3.2 Advantages of In Vitro Tumor Models
		3.3 Significance of In Vitro Tumor Models
		3.4 Prospects of Cell Immobilization in 3D Tumeroid Generation
		3.5 Future Prospects of Hydrogel-Based 3D Tumeroids
	4 Conclusion
	References
Nanosystems for Repairing Retinal Degeneration
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Retina Neurogenesis and RPE
		1.2 AMD and Embryonic Stem Cells
		1.3 Nanomatrix and Controlled Cell Expressions
	2 Nanosystems for Macular Regeneration
		2.1 RPE on Nanoporous Material
		2.2 Nanosheet for Targeted Delivery of RPE
		2.3 Nanofiber Topographical Cues for RPE Culture
	3 Future Directions and Conclusion
	References
Systemic Drug Delivery to the Posterior Segment of the Eye: Overcoming Blood–Retinal Barrier Through Smart Drug Design and Nanotechnology
	1 Introduction
	2 Anatomy and the Barrier Functions of the Blood–Retinal Barrier
		2.1 The Outer BRB
		2.2 The Inner BRB
		2.3 Changes in Permeability of oBRB and iBRB in Retinal Diseases
	3 Recent and Advanced Approaches of Overcoming BRB and Targeted Drug Delivery to the Posterior Segment of the Eye
		3.1 Smart Drugs for Overcoming BRB
		3.2 Drug Immobilization and Nanotechnology-Enabled Approaches of Overcoming BRB
		3.3 Controlled and Transient Modulation of BRB using Gene Delivery and Physical Forces
	4 Clinical Translation of Systemic Therapies to the Retina: What Lies Ahead?
		4.1 Mimicking Human Retina for Better Understanding of Pathophysiology and Drug Design
		4.2 The Proof is in the Pudding: Putting Innovative Nanotechnology-based Drug Delivery to Test
		4.3 Harnessing Innovative Tools for Non-invasive Diagnosis of the Retina and the BRB
		4.4 Bench to Bedside: Practical Considerations for Harnessing Systemic Drug Delivery to Posterior Eye in Clinical Settings
	5 Conclusions
	References
The Effects of Irradiation with Cold Atmospheric-Pressure Plasma on Cellular Function
	1 Introduction
	2 Types of CAP Treatment in Biomedical Research
	3 RONS Produced by CAP
		3.1 ROS Levels by CAP
		3.2 RNS Levels Produced Following CAP
	4 Effects of CAP on Intracellular Calcium Levels
		4.1 Changes in Intracellular Ca2+ Levels After CAP Treatment
	5 The Modification of Biomolecules by CAP
		5.1 Nucleic Acids (RNA and DNA)
		5.2 Plasma Membrane (Lipid)
		5.3 Amino Acid Modification and Protein Degradation
	6 Changes in Protein Expression After CAP Treatment
		6.1 Chaperone Proteins
		6.2 Inflammation-Related Proteins
		6.3 Redox Response Proteins
		6.4 DNA Damage-Related Proteins
		6.5 CAP Induces Dysfunction of Cellular Organelles
		6.6 Effect of CAP Treatment on Mitochondrial Function
		6.7 Effects of CAP Treatment on the Function of the ER
	7 CAP Treatment Causes Cell Cycle Arrest
	8 Cell Death-Inducing Activity of CAP
	9 The Regulation of Cellular Function by CAP
		9.1 CAP Regulates Cell Proliferation
		9.2 CAP Induces Cell Differentiation
		9.3 The Cellular Response
	10 The Application of CAP in the Treatment of Cancer
		10.1 Role of CAP in Cancer Therapy
		10.2 The Regulation of the Immune System by CAP
		10.3 CAP Suppresses Cancer Stem Cells
		10.4 The Synergistic Effects of CAP on Cytotoxicity in Combination with Other Therapeutic Tools
	11 Conclusion
	References
Immobilization of Biomolecules on Plasma-Functionalized Surfaces for Biomedical Applications
	1 Introduction
	2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Plasma Technology for Surface Modification
		2.1 Advantages
		2.2 Disadvantages
	3 Immobilization on Polymers
		3.1 Immobilization of Heparin
		3.2 Immobilization of Chitosan
		3.3 Immobilization of Collagen
		3.4 Immobilization of Peptides
		3.5 Immobilization of Enzymes
	4 Immobilization on Polymer Scaffolds
	5 Conclusion
	References
A Wide Portray of Upconversion Nanoparticles: Surface Modification for Bio-applications
	1 Introduction
	2 Challenges in Production
	3 Optical Properties
	4 Different Synthetic Strategies for the Production of Upconversion Nanoparticles
		4.1 Thermal Decomposition
		4.2 Hydrothermal or Solvothermal Synthesis
		4.3 Ionic-Liquid Based or Ionothermal Synthesis
	5 Few Recently Developed Synthetic Strategies
		5.1 Microwave Assisted Synthesis
		5.2 Photopolymerization
		5.3 Advanced and Recent Synthetic Strategies in UCNPs with Various Advanced Applications
		5.4 Investigation of Phase Transformation and Morphology Tuning in UCNPs
		5.5 Mechanistic Investigation of Photon Upconversion
	6 Biological Applications of UCNPs Based on Their Immobization to Assemblies
		6.1 DNA and Protein Detection
		6.2 Fluorescent Resonant Energy Transfer (FRET)
		6.3 In Vivo and in Vitro Biomedical Application
		6.4 Medicinal and Remedial Applications
	7 Conclusions
	References
Advances in Amphiphilic Assemblies and Its Immobilization in Room Temperature Supercooled Matrices
	1 Introduction
	2 Modulating the Microstructure of Micelles
	3 Immobilization of Self-assemblies
	4 Immobilization of Micelles Using Supercooled Matrix
	5 Supercooled Matrices for Cryopreservation of Biological Materials
	6 Conclusion
	References
Immobilization of Enzymes onto Silica-Based Nanomaterials for Bioprocess Applications
	1 Introduction
	2 Mesoporous Silica for Enzyme Immobilization
	3 Zeolites for Enzyme Immobilization
	4 Clay Materials for Enzyme Immobilization
	5 Conclusions
	References
Immobilization of Molecular Assemblies on 2D Nanomaterials for Electrochemical Biosensing Applications
	1 Introduction
	2 Electrochemical Transduction
		2.1 Potentiometric Sensors
		2.2 Voltammetric and Amperometric Sensors
		2.3 Impedance Sensors
	3 The 2D Layered Nanomaterials
		3.1 Graphene (Gr) and Graphene Oxide (GO)
		3.2 Transition Metal Chalcogenides
		3.3 Black Phosphorous (BP)
		3.4 Metal Oxides
		3.5 MXenes
	4 Conclusions and Future Scope
	References
Advancement of Immobilization Techniques in Forensic Science
	1 Introduction
	2 Methods of Immobilization
		2.1 Physical Methods
		2.2 Chemical Method
		2.3 Support Material
	3 Application of Immobilization Techniques
		3.1 Forensic Finger Printing
		3.2 Opiates Detection
		3.3 Pesticide Detection
		3.4 Heavy Metal Detection
		3.5 Serological Analysis
	4 Summary
	References
Functionalization, Immobilization and Stabilization of Biomolecules in Microfluidic Devices
	1 Introduction
	2 Strategies of Immobilization
		2.1 Entrapment
		2.2 Adsorption
		2.3 Cross-Linking
		2.4 Covalent immobilization
		2.5 Affinity Binding
	3 Substrate Used in Microfluidic Devices
		3.1 Glass
		3.2 Silicon
		3.3 Polymer
		3.4 Paper
	4 Film Deposition Techniques on Substrates
		4.1 Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD)
		4.2 Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD)
		4.3 Electrophoretic Deposition
	5 Nanomaterials for Surface Modification of Microfluidic Devices
	6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
	References
Biofilms: Naturally Immobilized Microbial Cell Factories
	1 Introduction
	2 Biofilm as Natural Immobilizers
	3 The Biofilm Matrix: Natural Immobilization Matrix
		3.1 Extracellular Polysaccharides
		3.2 Extracellular Proteins
		3.3 Extracellular DNA
		3.4 Lipids and Biosurfactants
		3.5 Quorum Sensing
	4 Steps in Microbial Biofilm Formation
	5 Biofilms as a Living Catalyst for Bioprocesses
	6 Immobilization Versus Biofilm Formation by Bacteria
	7 Biofilms as Biocatalysts When Compared to Planktonic Cells
	8 Challenges in Industrial Applications of Biofilm-Based Biocatalysis
	9 Conclusion
	References
Bioremediation of Industrial Effluents by Aerobic Bacterial Granules
	1 Introduction
	2 Granulation Process and Granule Formation
		2.1 Cell–Cell Contact and Microaggregation
		2.2 EPS Production and Granulation
		2.3 Cell-To-Cell Communication
	3 Factors Affecting Aerobic Granulation
		3.1 Seed Sludge
		3.2 Substrate Composition
		3.3 Substrate Loading Rate
		3.4 Hydrodynamic Shear Force
		3.5 Feast–Famine Regime
		3.6 Settling Time
		3.7 Other Factors That Affect Aerobic Granulation
	4 Applications of Aerobic Bacterial Granulation Technology
		4.1 Treating Toxic Organic Wastewaters
		4.2 Decolorization and Biodegradation of Dyes
		4.3 Treating Dairy and Oil Refinery Wastewater
		4.4 Other Applications
	5 Summary and Perspectives
	References
Application of Immobilization Techniques in Heavy Metal and Metalloid Remediation
	1 Introduction
	2 Adsorption Processes for Metal Removal
	3 Immobilization Techniques for Metal Removal
	4 Metal-Organic Framewords (MOFs)
	5 Microbial Immobilization Techniques for Metal Removal
	6 Algal Utilization in Immobilization-Based Metal Removal
	7 Membrane-Dependent Separation Processes for Metal Removal
	8 Microbe-Mediated In Situ Metal Immobilization
	References
Strategies, Challenges, and Advancement in Immobilizing Silver Nanomaterials
	1 Introduction
	2 Synthesis of Ag Nanomaterials
		2.1 Physical Methods
		2.2 Chemical Methods
		2.3 Biological Methods
		2.4 Comparison of Synthesis Methods
	3 Strategies and Mechanisms for Immobilization of Ag Nanomaterials
		3.1 Nanoscale Forces and Interactions
		3.2 Van der Waals Interactions
		3.3 Electrostatic Interactions
		3.4 Molecular Interactions
		3.5 Entropic Interactions
		3.6 Extrinsic Forces and Interactions
	4 Methods for Immobilization of Ag Nanomaterials
		4.1 Nanolithograpy
		4.2 Self-Assembly and Templated Assembly
	5 Applications of Immobilized Silver Nanomaterials
		5.1 Optical Applications
		5.2 Electronic Applications
		5.3 Catalysis
		5.4 Biomedical Applications
		5.5 Water Purification
	6 Conclusion and Outlook
	References
Textile Fabric Processing and Their Sustainable Effluent Treatment Using Enzymes—Insights and Challenges
	1 Introduction
	2 Textile Manufacturing Process and the Role of Enzymes
		2.1 De-sizing
		2.2 Scouring
		2.3 Bleaching
		2.4 Mercerizing
		2.5 Dyeing and Printing
		2.6 Bio-polishing and Bio-washing
		2.7 Application of Other Enzymes in Textile Processing
	3 Role of Enzymes in Treatment of Textile Effluent
	4 Immobilization of Enzymes: Role of Nano-carriers and Its Advances
	5 Challenges in Application of Immobilized Enzymes and a Paradigm Shift Towards In Situ Immobilization
	6 Concluding Remarks and Outlook
	References