Hydroponics and Protected Cultivation: A Practical Guide

Cover
Hydroponics and Protected Cultivation
Copyright
Contents
Acknowledgements
1 Background and History of Hydroponics and Protected Cultivation
	1.1 Protected Cropping
	1.2 The Future of Protected Cropping
	1.3 Background and History of Hydroponic Production
	1.4 Hydroponic Systems
	1.5 Substrate-Based Hydroponic Systems
	1.6 Organic Hydroponics
	1.7 Summary
	References
2 Greenhouses and Protected Cropping Structures
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Glasshouses and Plastic Greenhouses
	2.3 Closed and Semi-Closed Greenhouse Structures
	2.4 Passive Solar Greenhouses
	2.5 Sustainable Greenhouse Design
	2.6 Cladding Materials
	2.7 Screen Houses, Net Houses, Shade Houses, Rain Covers and Other Structures
	2.8 Screen and Shade Nets
	2.9 Low Tunnels and High Tunnels
	2.10 Hot Beds and Cold Frames
	2.11 Floating Mulches, Row Covers, Cloche Covers, Direct Covers and Frost Cloth
	2.12 Greenhouse Site Planning
	2.13 Windbreaks
	2.14 Outdoor Hydroponic Systems
	2.15 Controlled-Environment Agriculture
	References
3 The Greenhouse Environment and Energy Use
	3.1 Introduction – Environmental Modification in Protected Cropping
	3.2 Heating
	3.3 Cooling
	3.4 Lighting
	3.5 Shading
	3.6 Ventilation and Air Movement
	3.7 Humidity
	3.8 Carbon Dioxide Enrichment
	3.9 Greenhouse Automation
	3.10 Energy Use and Conservation in Protected Cropping
	3.11 Energy Sources for Protected Cropping
		3.11.1 Renewable energy sources
		3.11.2 Geothermal energy
		3.11.3 Solar energy
		3.11.4 Passive solar energy
		3.11.5 Wind-generated energy
		3.11.6 Biomass and biofuels
	References
4 Greenhouse Operation and Management
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Greenhouse Sanitation and Hygiene
		4.2.1 Hygiene and sanitation for food safety
		4.2.2 Food safety and compliance programmes
		4.2.3 Hygiene and sanitation for crop protection
	4.3 Source Water Quality and Treatment
	4.4 Greenhouse Biosecurity
		4.4.1 People movement, human activity and biosecurity measures
		4.4.2 Staff, visitors and hygiene
	4.5 Waste Management and Disposal
		4.5.1 Disposal of greenhouse wastewater
		4.5.2 Treatment of wastewater
		4.5.3 Disposal of and reduction in organic waste
		4.5.4 Disposal of plastics
		4.5.5 Disposal of pesticides and agrochemical containers
	4.6 Occupational Health and Safety
	References
5 Hydroponic Systems – Solution Culture
	5.1 Introduction – Solution Culture Systems
	5.2 NFT – Nutrient Film Technique
		5.2.1 NFT crops
		5.2.2 Types of NFT systems
		5.2.3 Nutrient solution management in NFT
	5.3 Deep Water Culture/Deep Flow Technique – Float, Raft or Pond Systems
		5.3.1 Management of DWC and DFT systems
	5.4 Aeroponics
	5.5 Vertical Systems
	5.6 Aquaponics
	5.7 Organic Solution Culture
	5.8 Hydroponic Fodder Systems
	5.9 Nutrient Chilling Systems
	5.10 Automation for Solution Culture Systems
	References
6 Substrate-based Hydroponic Systems
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Properties of Hydroponic Substrates
	6.3 Open and Closed Soilless Systems
	6.4 Common Hydroponic Substrates
		6.4.1 Stone wool (mineral wool, rockwool or glass wool)
		6.4.2 Coconut fibre (coir, palm peat, coco peat, coco)
		6.4.3 Peat, bark and sawdust
		6.4.4 Perlite
		6.4.5 Pumice and scoria
		6.4.6 Vermiculite
		6.4.7 Expanded clay
		6.4.8 Rice hulls
		6.4.9 Sand and gravels
		6.4.10 New substrates
	6.5 Substrates and Water-Holding Capacity
	6.6 Substrates and Oversaturation
	6.7 Matching Substrates to Crop Species
	6.8 Physical Properties of Soilless Substrates
		6.8.1 Bulk density
		6.8.2 Particle size distribution
		6.8.3 Total porosity
		6.8.4 Air-filled porosity
		6.8.5 Water-holding capacity or container capacity
	6.9 Chemical Properties of Hydroponic Substrates
		6.9.1 pH
		6.9.2 Cation exchange capacity
		6.9.3 Specific ion contents, salinity and electrical conductivity
		6.9.4 Testing methods
	6.10 Nutrient Delivery in Substrate Systems
		6.10.1 Drip irrigation
		6.10.2 Drip-irrigated systems – design and layout
		6.10.3 Ebb and flow (flood and drain) nutrient delivery systems
		6.10.4 Capillary watering systems
		6.10.5 Gravity-fed irrigation
		6.10.6 Nutrient dosing and injectors
	6.11 Irrigation and Moisture Control in Substrates
		6.11.1 Substrate moisture, growth balance and deficit irrigation
	6.12 Microbial Populations in Substrates
	References
7 Organic Soilless Greenhouse Systems
	7.1 Introduction – Organic Greenhouse Production
	7.2 Organic Hydroponic Systems
	7.3 Organic Hydroponic Nutrients
	7.4 Microbial Mineralization of Organic Nutrients for Hydroponics
	7.5 Anaerobic and Aerobic Processing of Organic Materials
	7.6 Vermicast and Vermicomposting
	7.7 Using Vermiculture Liquids in Hydroponics
	7.8 Composting for Organic Nutrient Processing and Substrate Preparation
	7.9 Organic Materials for Vermicast, Composting and Biodigester Systems
		7.9.1 Organic fertilizer/nutrient sources
		7.9.2 Animal sources of organic fertilizers
		7.9.3 Plant-based inputs
	7.10 Aquaponics
	7.11 Organic Hydroponic Production Systems
	7.12 Biofilms in Organic Hydroponic Systems
	7.13 Nutrient Amendments
	7.14 Organic Certification in the USA
	7.15 Organic Pest and Disease Control
	7.16 Hybrid Systems
	7.17 Issues Commonly Encountered with Organic Hydroponic Systems
	7.18 Conclusions
	References
8 Propagation and Transplant Production
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Propagation from Seed
		8.2.1 Hybrid seed versus open-pollinated seed
		8.2.2 Seed treatments – pelleting, coating and priming
		8.2.3 Seed storage
		8.2.4 Production of transplants from seed
	8.3 Seedling Delivery Systems
	8.4 Seeding Methods
	8.5 Germination Problems
	8.6 Transplant Production Systems
		8.6.1 Transplant production environment
		8.6.2 Seedling nutrition
	8.7 Use of Plant Factories for Seedling Transplant Production
	8.8 Organic Transplant Production
	8.9 Transplant Establishment
	8.10 Grafting
	8.11 Vegetative Propagation
	8.12 Tissue Culture
		8.12.1 Tissue culture techniques and methods
	References
9 Plant Nutrition and Nutrient Formulation
	9.1 Water Quality and Sources for Hydroponic Production
		9.1.1 Well water
		9.1.2 Surface water
		9.1.3 Rainwater
		9.1.4 City or municipal water supplies
		9.1.5 Reclaimed water sources
	9.2 Water Testing
	9.3 Water Analysis Reports
		9.3.1 pH and alkalinity
		9.3.2 Electrical conductivity
		9.3.3 Mineral elements in water supplies
			Nitrate
			Phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium and Sulfur
			Sodium
			Chloride
			Iron
			Manganese
			Boron
			Copper
			Zinc
	9.4 Water Quality and Plant Growth
	9.5 Water Treatment Options
	9.6 Water Usage and Supply Requirements
	9.7 Plant Nutrition in Hydroponic Systems
	9.8 Essential Elements – Functions in Plants and Deficiency Symptoms
		9.8.1 Nitrogen
		9.8.2 Potassium
		9.8.3 Phosphorus
		9.8.4 Calcium
		9.8.5 Magnesium
		9.8.6 Sulfur
		9.8.7 Iron
		9.8.8 Manganese
		9.8.9 Boron
		9.8.10 Zinc
		9.8.11 Copper
		9.8.12 Chloride
		9.8.13 Molybdenum
	9.9 Beneficial Elements
	9.10 Nutrient Formulation
		9.10.1 The process of nutrient formulation
	9.11 Hydroponic Nutrient Formulation – Nitrogen Sources
	9.12 Common Hydroponic Fertilizers
		9.12.1 Calcium nitrate
		9.12.2 Ammonium nitrate
		9.12.3 Ammonium phosphate
		9.12.4 Urea
		9.12.5 Potassium nitrate
		9.12.6 Potassium sulfate
		9.12.7 Monopotassium phosphate
		9.12.8 Calcium superphosphate
		9.12.9 Magnesium sulfate
		9.12.10 Magnesium nitrate
		9.12.11 Iron chelates
		9.12.12 Manganese sulfate, manganese chelates
		9.12.13 Copper sulfate, copper chelates
		9.12.14 Zinc sulfate, zinc chelates
		9.12.15 Boric acid, borax
		9.12.16 Sodium molybdate, ammonium molybdate
		9.12.17 Nitric and phosphoric acids
	9.13 Fertilizer Composition and Grades
	9.14 Chelation of Trace Elements
	9.15 Foliar Fertilizers
	9.16 Electrical Conductivity
	9.17 pH
	9.18 Automation and Testing Equipment
	9.19 Conditions Which Affect Nutrient Uptake Rates
		9.19.1 Temperature and humidity
		9.19.2 Time of day
		9.19.3 Light levels
		9.19.4 Root health and size
		9.19.5 Aeration and oxygenation
	9.20 Plant Tissue Analysis
	9.21 Fertilizer and Environmental Concerns
	9.22 Water and Nutrient Solution Treatment Methods
		9.22.1 Ultraviolet disinfection
		9.22.2 Ozone
		9.22.3 Filtration
		9.22.4 Slow sand filtration
		9.22.5 Chlorine
		9.22.6 Hydrogen peroxide
		9.22.7 Heat
	9.23 Surfactants
	References
10 Plant Health, Plant Protection and Abiotic Factors
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Major Greenhouse Pests
		10.2.1 Whitefly
		10.2.2 Aphids
		10.2.3 Thrips
		10.2.4 Mites
		10.2.5 Caterpillars and leaf miner larvae
		10.2.6 Fungus gnats
		10.2.7 Nematodes
	10.3 Pest Control Options – Integrated Pest Management
	10.4 Selected Diseases of Hydroponic Crops
		10.4.1 Botrytis
		10.4.2 Mildew diseases
		10.4.3 Pythium root rot
		10.4.4 Wilt diseases
		10.4.5 Common bacterial diseases
		10.4.6 Virus diseases
	10.5 Abiotic Factors and Physiological Disorders
		10.5.1 Temperature damage
			Heat injury
			Low-temperature and chilling injury
		10.5.2 Light
		10.5.3 Root-zone abiotic factors
		10.5.4 Irrigation water quality and salinity
		10.5.5 Chemical injury (phytotoxicity)
		10.5.6 Ethylene
	10.6 Cultural Practices Causing Abiotic Disorders
	10.7 Identification of Abiotic Disorders
	10.8 Crop-Specific Physiological Disorders
		10.8.1 Blossom end rot
		10.8.2 Tipburn
		10.8.3 Bolting
		10.8.4 Fruit shape and splitting/cracking disorders
	References
11 Hydroponic Production of Selected Crops
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Hydroponic Tomato Production
		11.2.1 Hydroponic systems for tomato production
		11.2.2 Tomato propagation
		11.2.3 Tomato environmental conditions
		11.2.4 Tomato crop training systems
		11.2.5 Tomato crop steering
		11.2.6 Tomato pollination and fruit development
		11.2.7 Tomato crop nutrition
		11.2.8 Tomato pests and diseases
		11.2.9 Tomato yields
	11.3 Hydroponic Capsicum Production
		11.3.1 Capsicum propagation
		11.3.2 Capsicum systems of production
		11.3.3 Capsicum pollination, fruit set and fruit development
		11.3.4 Capsicum training
		11.3.5 Capsicum crop nutrition
		11.3.6 Capsicum pests, diseases and physiological disorders
		11.3.7 Capsicum harvesting and yields
	11.4 Hydroponic Cucumber Production
		11.4.1 Cucumber propagation and production
		11.4.2 Cucumber environmental conditions
		11.4.3 Cucumber training and support systems
		11.4.4 Cucumber crop nutrition
		11.4.5 Cucumber harvesting and yields
		11.4.6 Cucumber pests, diseases and physiological disorders
	11.5 Lettuce and Other Salad Greens
		11.5.1 Lettuce propagation and production
		11.5.2 Lettuce environmental conditions
		11.5.3 Lettuce crop nutrition
		11.5.4 Lettuce pests, diseases and physiological disorders
		11.5.5 Lettuce harvesting and handling
	11.6 Production of Hydroponic Micro Greens
		11.6.1 Harvesting micro greens
	11.7 Hydroponic Strawberry Production
		11.7.1 Strawberry propagation
		11.7.2 Strawberry production systems
		11.7.3 Strawberry plant density, pruning, pollination and fruit growth
		11.7.4 Strawberry production environment
		11.7.5 Strawberry crop nutrition
		11.7.6 Strawberry pests, diseases and disorders
		11.7.7 Strawberry harvest and postharvest handling
	11.8 Hydroponic Rose Production
		11.8.1 Rose production systems and planting material
		11.8.2 Rose plant density, pruning and plant management
		11.8.3 Rose growing environment
		11.8.4 Rose crop nutrition
		11.8.5 Rose pests, diseases and disorders
		11.8.6 Rose harvesting
	References
12 Plant Factories – Closed Plant Production Systems
	12.1 History and Background
	12.2 Advantages of Plant Factories
	12.3 Criticisms of Plant Factories
	12.4 Costs and Returns
	12.5 Domestic and Other Small-Scale Plant Factories
	12.6 Crops Produced Including Pharmaceuticals
	12.7 Vertical or Multilevel Systems, Including Moveable Systems
	12.8 Crop Nutrition in Plant Factories
	12.9 Plant Factory Environments
	12.10 Lighting
	12.11 Environmental Control and Plant Quality in Plant Factories
	12.12 Automation and Robotization
	12.13 New Innovations
	References
13 Greenhouse Produce Quality and Assessment
	13.1 Background – Produce Quality and Testing
	13.2 Components of Crop Quality
	13.3 Quality Improvement
	13.4 Cultural Practices to Improve Greenhouse Produce Quality
		13.4.1 Nutrient solution electrical conductivity levels, salinity and deficit irrigation
		13.4.2 Calcium and potassium and compositional quality
	13.5 Environmental Conditions and Produce Quality
		13.5.1 Light levels and produce quality
		13.5.2 Temperature and produce quality
		13.5.3 Nutrient solution chilling
	13.6 Genetics and Produce Quality
	13.7 Quality Testing and Grading Methods
		13.7.1 Colour analysis
		13.7.2 Total soluble solids (Brix) testing
		13.7.3 Dry weight percentage
		13.7.4 Acidity and pH
		13.7.5 Flavour quality – aroma and taste
		13.7.6 Sensory evaluation of compositional quality
		13.7.7 Volatiles testing – aroma
	13.8 Nutritional Quality
	13.9 Biologically Active Compounds
	13.10 Texture and Firmness Quality Assessment
	13.11 Microbial Quality and Food Safety
	13.12 Mycotoxins and Contaminants
	13.13 Heavy Metals and Chemical Contamination
	13.14 Naturally Occurring Toxins
	13.15 Nitrate in Leafy Greens
	References
14 Harvest and Postharvest Factors
	14.1 Harvesting
		14.1.1 Harvest maturity
		14.1.2 Hand harvesting
		14.1.3 Robotic harvesting of greenhouse crops
	14.2 Postharvest Handling, Grading and Storage
		14.2.1 Pack houses
		14.2.2 Washing, cleaning and sanitation
		14.2.3 Size and shape grading
		14.2.4 Manual grading
		14.2.5 Colour sorting and grading
		14.2.6 Automated colour and grading systems
		14.2.7 Grading other produce – cut flowers
	14.3 Fresh-Cut Salad Processing
	14.4 Shelf-Life Evaluation
	14.5 Packaging
	14.6 Postharvest Cooling
	14.7 Postharvest Handling Damage
	14.8 GAP – Good Agricultural Practices in Postharvest Handling
	14.9 Postharvest Storage
		14.9.1 Postharvest physiology during storage
		14.9.2 Storage systems
		14.9.3 Refrigeration and cool storage
		14.9.4 Controlled and modified atmosphere storage
		14.9.5 Modified atmosphere packaging
	14.10 Postharvest Disorders
		14.10.1 Temperature injury
		14.10.2 Ethylene injury
		14.10.3 Other postharvest storage disorders
		14.10.4 Storage decay
	14.11 Food Safety and Hygiene
	14.12 Ready-to-Eat, Minimally Processed Produce
	14.13 Certification and Food Safety Systems
		14.13.1 Documentation and recall programmes
	14.14 Postharvest Developments
	References
Index