Hydroponics and Environmental Bioremediation: Wastewater Treatment (Springer Water)

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
Editor and Contributors
1 Hydroponics: A Significant Method for Phytoremediation
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Global Water Pollution Status
	1.3 Hydroponics and Plant Growth
	1.4 Hydroponics as a Sustainable Phytoremediation Technique
		1.4.1 Selection of Plants for Hydroponics
		1.4.2 Types of Hydroponics
		1.4.3 Sources of Nutrients for Hydroponics
		1.4.4 Mechanism of Phytoremediation
	1.5 Factors Influencing Hydroponics Based Phytoremediation
		1.5.1 Light
		1.5.2 Water Use Efficiency
		1.5.3 Aeration
		1.5.4 Temperature
		1.5.5 Electrical Conductivity (EC)
		1.5.6 pH
		1.5.7 Size of Remediation Pond
		1.5.8 Carbon Dioxide Concentration
		1.5.9 Nutrient Management
		1.5.10 Hyper-Accumulation Ability of Plant Species
	1.6 Opportunities and Challenges
	1.7 New Trends of Hydroponics Based Environmental Remediation
	1.8 Conclusion and Future Prospects
	References
2 Bioremediation of Wastewater Using Hydroponics
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Research Gap on Bioremediation of Wastewater Using Hydroponics
	2.3 Possible Solutions to Address the Research Gap on the Bioremediation of Wastewater Using Hydroponics
	2.4 Types of Water Pollution
		2.4.1 Thermal Pollution
		2.4.2 Transport Pollution
		2.4.3 Natural Pollution
	2.5 Sources of Water Pollution
		2.5.1 Domestic Sewage
		2.5.2 Industrial Effluents
		2.5.3 Agricultural Waste
		2.5.4 Heavy Metal Pollution in Water
	2.6 Effect of Pollutants on the Aquatic Ecosystem
		2.6.1 Pesticides
		2.6.2 Heavy Metals
		2.6.3 Crude Oil
		2.6.4 Dyes and Paints
		2.6.5 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
		2.6.6 Plastic
		2.6.7 Nitroaromatic Compounds
		2.6.8 Pharmaceuticals
	2.7 Treatment of Water for Removal of Heavy Metals
		2.7.1 Bioremediation Through Hydroponics
	2.8 Classification of Macrophytes
		2.8.1 Macrophytes Used in Aquatic Phytoremediation
	2.9 Organic Pollutants
	2.10 Microbial Pollutants
	2.11 Issues in Utilizing Invasive Macrophytes
	2.12 Wild Macrophyte Harvesting
	2.13 Conclusion
	References
3 Sustainable Approach for Agriculture and Environmental Remediation Using Hydroponics and Their Perspectives
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Background Information and Importance of Environmentally Friendly Agriculture
	3.3 An Overview of Hydroponics
	3.4 Components and Materials Used in Hydroponics
		3.4.1 Water
		3.4.2 Nutrients
		3.4.3 Electrical Conductivity (EC)
		3.4.4 Media
		3.4.5 Light
		3.4.6 Bulk Density
		3.4.7 Temperature
		3.4.8 Carbon Dioxide
		3.4.9 Relative Humidity
	3.5 Various Hydroponic Systems and Methods
		3.5.1 Nutrition Film Method (NFT)
		3.5.2 Flow and Drain System
		3.5.3 Drip Systems
		3.5.4 Deep Flow Technique (DFT) or Pipe System
		3.5.5 Aquaponics Systems
		3.5.6 The Floating Raft Systems
		3.5.7 Aeroponics Systems
	3.6 Hydroponics System in Sustainable Agriculture and Environmental Remediation
		3.6.1 Hydroponics and Environmental Remediation
		3.6.2 Hydroponic Crop Production
		3.6.3 Hydroponic Waste Water System
	3.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydroponics
	3.8 Indian Hydroponics Market Size
		3.8.1 India’s Hydroponics Industry
		3.8.2 Senior Professionals and Specialists
	3.9 Indian Prospects of Hydroponics for the Future
	References
4 Applications of Hydroponic Systems in Phytoremediation of Wastewater
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Hydroponic Phytoremediation Systems and Treatments of Wastewater
	4.3 The Historic Journey of Hydroponics
	4.4 Aquatic Phytoremediation Communities
		4.4.1 Aquatic Phytoremediation of Macronutrients
		4.4.2 Aquatic Phytoremediation of Metal Micronutrients
		4.4.3 Aquatic Phytoremediation of Organic Pollutants
		4.4.4 Aquatic Phytoremediation of Microbial Pollutants
	4.5 Removal of Pesticides and Toxic Substances Through Phytoremediation Technique:
		4.5.1 Phytoremediation: A Novel Technique
	4.6 Elimination of Heavy Metals Through Phytoremediation Technique
		4.6.1 Phytoextraction
		4.6.2 Phytostabilization
		4.6.3 Rhizofiltration
		4.6.4 Phytovolatilization
	4.7 Advantages of Hydroponics:
	4.8 Constraints Behind the Application of Hydroponics
	4.9 Conclusion and Future Directions
	References
5 Environmental Remediation Using Hydroponics
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Hydroponic Cultivation Techniques
		5.2.1 Drip Irrigation
		5.2.2 Aeroponics
		5.2.3 Advantages of Hydroponics
	5.3 Phytoremediation Aspect
	5.4 Hydroponics as an Alternative for Pot Culture
	5.5 Toxic Substances
		5.5.1 Thermal Pollution
		5.5.2 Natural Pollution
		5.5.3 Sources of Water Pollution
		5.5.4 Heavy Metal Pollution in Water
		5.5.5 Water Treatment for Heavy Metal Removal
	5.6 Phytoremediation
		5.6.1 Response of Plants to Metal Pollution
		5.6.2 Types of Phytoremediation
	5.7 Rhizofiltration
		5.7.1 Background
		5.7.2 Rhizofiltration Technology
		5.7.3 Plant Species for Rhizofiltration
		5.7.4 Rhizofiltration Using Terrestrial Plants
		5.7.5 Rhizofiltration: Recent Advances
	5.8 Challenges of Hydroponic Phytotechnologies
		5.8.1 Plant Development and Variability
		5.8.2 Can Rhizofiltration Effectiveness Be Extrapolated to Soil Pollution?
		5.8.3 Importance of Root Surface Area in Expressing Metal Uptake
		5.8.4 Utilization of Phytoremediation By-Products
	5.9 Cost Estimates Using Rhizofiltration
	5.10 Rhizofiltration and Sustainable Development
	5.11 Conclusions
	References
6 Hydroponic Removal of Organic Contaminants from Water
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Contamination of Water and Its Security
	6.3 Phytoremediation: A Plant-Based Eco-Friendly Technology
		6.3.1 Rhizofiiltration
		6.3.2 Phytoextraction
		6.3.3 Phytostabilization
		6.3.4 Phytovolatilization
		6.3.5 Phytodegradation
	6.4 Types of Pollutants in an Aquatic Ecosystem
	6.5 Sources of Organic Pollution
	6.6 Toxicity of Organic Pollution on Plants and Animals
	6.7 Abundance and Ecology of Aquatic Macrophytes
	6.8 Organic Pollutants
	6.9 Macrophyte Phytoremediation Communities
	6.10 Factors Affecting Phytoremediation of Organic Contaminants by Using Macrophytes
		6.10.1 Temperature
		6.10.2 Plant Species
	6.11 Advantages, Disadvantages and Future Trends in Phytoremediation
	6.12 Conclusion
	References
7 Harnessing the Power of Plants in Hydroponics for Wastewater Treatment and Bioremediation
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 The Process of Bioremediation
	7.3 Phytoremediation: A Solution for Treating Pollutants in Wastewater
		7.3.1 Mechanisms of Phytoremediation
	7.4 Harnessing the Potential of Plants for Phytoremediation
	7.5 Utilizing Plants for Wastewater Management: The Role of Constructed Wetlands
	7.6 The Distinction Between Constructed Wetlands and Hydroponics in Water Management
	7.7 Different Types of Hydroponic Growing Systems
		7.7.1 Deep Water Culture (DWC)
		7.7.2 Nutrient Film Technique (NFT)
		7.7.3 Aeroponics
		7.7.4 Drip System
	7.8 Plant Selection for Wastewater Phytoremediation
	References
8 Removal of Heavy Metals From Contaminated Water Using Hydroponics
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Hydroponics as a Heavy Metal Removal Method
	8.3 Types of Hydroponic Systems Used for Heavy Metal Removal
	8.4 Mechanisms of Heavy Metal Removal in Hydroponics
		8.4.1 Phytoextraction
		8.4.2 Phytofiltration
		8.4.3 Phytodegradation
		8.4.4 Phytostabilization
		8.4.5 Detoxifications
		8.4.6 Avoidance
		8.4.7 Tolerance
	8.5 Factors Affecting Heavy Metal Removal in Hydroponics
		8.5.1 pH
		8.5.2 Temperature
		8.5.3 Nutrient Concentration
		8.5.4 Plant Species
		8.5.5 Heavy Metal Concentration
		8.5.6 Hydraulic Retention Time
	8.6 Case Studies of Heavy Metal Removal Using Hydroponics
	8.7 Recent Advances in Hydroponics
	8.8 Limitations and Challenges of Hydroponics for Heavy Metal Removal
	8.9 Future Directions and Conclusions
	References
9 Hydroponic: An Eco-friendly Future
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Benefits of Hydroponics in Agriculture with Latest Technology Information
		9.2.1 Water Efficiency
		9.2.2 Increased Crop Yields
		9.2.3 Efficient Land Use
		9.2.4 Reduced Chemical Dependency
		9.2.5 Year-Round Production
		9.2.6 Sustainable Nutrient Management
		9.2.7 Integration with Automation and Artificial Intelligence
	9.3 Hydroponically Grown Crops and Their Tolerance Against Abiotic and Biotic Factor
	9.4 Hydroponically Grown Salix Species and Their Interaction with Perfluoroalkyl Substance
	9.5 Use of Hydroponics in the Form of Vermifilteration
	9.6 Robotic System Design and Development for Vertical Hydroponics Farming System
	9.7 Conclusion
	References
10 Hydroponic Root Mats for Wastewater Treatment: A Review
	10.1 Introduction
		10.1.1 Definition of Hydroponic Root Mats
	10.2 Hydroponic Root Mat Characteristics and Operating Conditions
		10.2.1 Root Growth and Usage of Plants
		10.2.2 Microorganisms and the Root Area
		10.2.3 Water Depth
		10.2.4 Buoyancy
	10.3 Factors Affecting Yield and Performance
		10.3.1 Plants
		10.3.2 Temperature
		10.3.3 Aeration
		10.3.4 Harvesting of Plants
	10.4 The Impact of a Plant’s Root Mat on Water Flow
	10.5 Vegetation Coverage’s Effect on Water Purification Methods
	10.6 Hydroponic Root Mats, Ponds with Floating Vegetation, and Soil-Based Built Wetlands All Have Their Own Unique Characteristics
		10.6.1 Hydroponic Root Mats
		10.6.2 Plants That Float on Water in Wetlands
		10.6.3 Constructed Wetland Ecosystems
	10.7 Hydroponic Root Mat Treatment Effectiveness Assessment
		10.7.1 Suspended Solids
		10.7.2 Organic Mass
		10.7.3 Nutrients
		10.7.4 Heavy Metals
		10.7.5 Metals That Might Be Poisonous
	10.8 Hydroponic Root Mats, Fundamental Layout for Treatment Methods
	10.9 Advantages of System
	10.10 Drawbacks of System
	10.11 The Outcomes and Directions for Further Study
	References
11 Soilless Cultivation of Plants for Phytoremediation
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Soilless Culture Systems and Equipment
		11.2.1 Systems of Cultivation on Growing Media
	11.3 Water Culture Systems
		11.3.1 Fertigation Heads and Automated Control Systems
		11.3.2 Open and Closed Soilless Culture Systems
	11.4 Growing Media and Their Use in SCS
		11.4.1 Classification of Growing Media
		11.4.2 Growing Media Choice
		11.4.3 Analyzing the Growing Media’s Performance
		11.4.4 Physical Properties
		11.4.5 Chemical Properties
		11.4.6 Biological Properties
	11.5 Environmental Perspective
	11.6 Soilless Cultivation Types
	11.7 Plants
		11.7.1 Species
		11.7.2 Limiting Factor for Plant Growth
		11.7.3 Light and CO2
		11.7.4 Water and Nutrients
	11.8 Overview of Phytoremediation
		11.8.1 Degradation
		11.8.2 Extraction
	11.9 Phytoremediation Technologies
		11.9.1 Rhizofiltration
		11.9.2 Hydraulic Control
		11.9.3 Phytovolatilization
		11.9.4 Riparian Corridors/Buffer Strips
		11.9.5 Phytodegradation
		11.9.6 Phytoextraction
		11.9.7 Rhizodegradation
		11.9.8 Constructed Wetlands
	11.10 Soilless Cultivation Through an Intensive Crop Production Scheme
		11.10.1 Rough Comparison of Soilless Systems
		11.10.2 Advantages of Soıl-Less Culture
		11.10.3 Lımıtatıons of Soıl-Less Culture
	11.11 Soilless Culture: Concluding Remarks and Future Issues
	References
12 Effect of Bio-Sorptive Removal of Heavy Metals from Hydroponic Solution: A Review
	12.1 Introduction
		12.1.1 Background
		12.1.2 Objectives
		12.1.3 Scope
	12.2 The Exposure of Hydroponic Systems to Heavy Metals
		12.2.1 Risks and Impacts on Plant Growth
		12.2.2 Health and Environmental Concerns
	12.3 Bio-Sorption as a Heavy Metal Removal Technique
		12.3.1 Process of Bio-Sorption
		12.3.2 Selection of Bio-Sorbent Materials
		12.3.3 Various Forms of Biomass
		12.3.4 Waste Materials from Agriculture
		12.3.5 Organism-Based Bio-Sorbents
	12.4 Factors That Impact Bio-Sorption Capacity
		12.4.1 pH
		12.4.2 Temperature
		12.4.3 Biomass Concentration
		12.4.4 Initially Present Metal Ions
		12.4.5 Additional Elements That Influence the Uptake Process
	12.5 Zone of Influence
	12.6 Vegetative Absorption
	12.7 Standard Methods for Heavy Metals Elimination
		12.7.1 Industrial Precipitation
		12.7.2 Exchange of Ion
		12.7.3 Membrane Filtration
		12.7.4 Ultrafiltration
		12.7.5 Reverse Osmosis
	12.8 Biosorbents for Heavy Metal Removal in Hydroponics
	12.9 Different Kinds of Hydroponic Circulation Mechanisms
		12.9.1 Systems that Are Visible
		12.9.2 Close Mechanisms
		12.9.3 Various Uncontaminated and Hydroponic System Types
		12.9.4 Wick Over an Indirect System
		12.9.5 Advanced Aqua Industry
		12.9.6 The Nutrient Film Method
		12.9.7 Using the Media Mattress
		12.9.8 Hydroponic Media Substrates
	12.10 Approaches for Hydroponic Systems and Plants’ nutritional Needs
	12.11 Application of Hydroponic Systems
	12.12 Investigations on Energy Efficiency and Financial Sustainability
	12.13 Conclusion
	References
13 Hydroponics Phytoremediation: An Overview
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Research Gap in Hydroponics
	13.3 Hydroponics and Its Types and Use
		13.3.1 Introduction to Hydroponics
		13.3.2 Types of Hydroponics
		13.3.3 Uses of Hydroponics
	13.4 Nutrient Film Technique (NFT) in Hydroponics: A Detailed Overview
		13.4.1 Components of an NFT System
		13.4.2 How NFT Works
		13.4.3 Advantages of NFT
		13.4.4 Challenges and Considerations
	13.5 Deep Water Culture (DWC) in Hydroponics: A Detailed Overview
		13.5.1 Components of a DWC System
		13.5.2 How DWC Works
		13.5.3 Advantages of DWC
		13.5.4 Challenges and Considerations
	13.6 Ebb and Flow (Flood and Drain) in Hydroponics: A Detailed Overview
		13.6.1 Components of an Ebb and Flow System
		13.6.2 How Ebb and Flow Works
		13.6.3 Advantages of Ebb and Flow
		13.6.4 Challenges and Considerations
	13.7 Aeroponics: A Detailed Overview
		13.7.1 Components of an Aeroponics System
		13.7.2 Advantages of Aeroponics
		13.7.3 Challenges and Considerations
	13.8 The Wick System in Hydroponics: A Detailed Overview
		13.8.1 Components of the Wick System
		13.8.2 How the Wick System Works
		13.8.3 Advantages of the Wick System
		13.8.4 Challenges and Considerations
	13.9 Phytoremediation: A Detailed Overview
		13.9.1 How Phytoremediation Works
		13.9.2 Types of Phytoremediation
		13.9.3 Advantages of Phytoremediation
		13.9.4 Challenges and Limitations
	13.10 Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)
	13.11 Key Characteristics of the Superoxide Radical (O2·−) Include
		13.11.1 Key Aspects of Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) During Heavy Metal Stress Include
		13.11.2 Critical Aspects of Singlet Oxygen During Heavy Metal Stress Include
	13.12 Mechanisms of Programmed Cell Death
	13.13 Impact of Heavy Metal Stress on PCD: Heavy Metal Stress Can Influence PCD in Various Ways
	13.14 Consequences of Dysregulated PCD
	13.15 Heavy Metal Transportation in Xylem
		13.15.1 Critical Aspects of Heavy Metal Transportation in Xylem
		13.15.2 Role of Xylem in Heavy Metal Detoxification and Accumulation
	13.16 Impact of Heavy Metal on Mitochondrial Dysfunction
		13.16.1 Effects of Heavy Metals on Mitochondrial Dysfunction
		13.16.2 Consequences of Heavy Metal-Induced Mitochondrial Dysfunction
	13.17 Conclusion
	13.18 Future Prospects
	References
14 Hydroponics Removal of Wastewater’s Contaminants
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 The Role of Hydroponics in the Removal of Contaminants
	14.3 Removal Processes of Contaminants in Hydroponics
	14.4 Desirable Characteristics of Plants Used in Hydroponic
	14.5 Environmental, Economic and Social Benefits Associated to the Use of Hydroponics for Wastewater Treatment
	14.6 Future Research in Hydroponics for Contaminants Removal
	References