Hydrology: A Science of Nature

Cover Page......Page 1
Title: Hydrology: A Science Of Nature......Page 2
ISBN 9781578087099......Page 3
Foreword......Page 4
Preface......Page 5
Contents......Page 7
List Of Figures......Page 15
List Of Tables......Page 24
1.1 HISTORICAL APPROACH......Page 27
1.1.1 Early explanations of the Water Cycle......Page 28
1.1.2 Water in Ancient Egypt......Page 30
Qanat water systems......Page 32
The Shadoof......Page 33
1.1.3 And Elsewhere?......Page 34
1.1.4 Water in the Middle Ages......Page 35
1.2 THE MODERN CONCEPT OF WATER......Page 36
1.2.1 Current problems......Page 37
1.2.2 Floods and inundations......Page 38
1.3.1 Around the World......Page 39
1.3.2 In Europe......Page 41
1.3.3 Switzerland......Page 42
1.3.4 The Role of Nongovernmental Organizations......Page 43
1.4.1 Protecting the environment in general......Page 44
1.5.2 Organization......Page 45
2.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 47
A brief Historical Overview......Page 48
The Atomic Structure of the Water Molecule......Page 49
Intermolecular Structure......Page 50
Physical Properties......Page 51
Chemical Properties......Page 53
Isotopes of Water......Page 54
2.2.3 The Physical States of Water......Page 55
2.2.4 Seawater......Page 58
2.3.1 Definitions and generalities......Page 59
2.3.2 A Dynamic and Complex System......Page 60
2.3.3 Qualitative Description of the Water Cycle on a Global Scale......Page 62
2.3.4 General Principles of a Quantitative Description......Page 63
Turnover Time......Page 64
Residence Time......Page 65
Flow Deficit......Page 66
Turc's Equation......Page 67
Evaporation......Page 68
Precipitation......Page 69
Intercepted and surface storage water......Page 70
Water in the rivers, lakes and oceans......Page 71
2.4 THE DISTRIBUTION OF WATER......Page 72
2.4.1 The Global Scale......Page 73
2.4.2 The Climatic Zone Scale......Page 77
2.4.3 The Continental Scale......Page 78
2.4.4 The Country Scale......Page 79
2.5.1 The Carbon Cycle......Page 84
The Major Reservoirs for Carbon and its Processes of Transformation......Page 85
Atmosphere and the Greenhouse Effect......Page 86
The Hydrosphere......Page 89
The Role of Photosynthesis......Page 90
The Different Nitrogen Cycles......Page 91
Particulate, Dissolved, and Organic Forms......Page 93
2.6 CONCLUSIONS......Page 94
3.1.1 Topographic Watershed and Effective Watershed......Page 97
3.1.2 Other Watershed Models......Page 99
3.2.1 Hydrological Response of a Watershed......Page 100
Definition of the Time of Concentration......Page 102
The Rational Method......Page 103
Calculating Discharge Using Isochrones......Page 104
3.3 PHYSIOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF A WATERSHED......Page 105
Shape......Page 106
Hypsometric Curve......Page 108
The Equivalent Rectangle......Page 109
Maximum and Minimum Altitudes......Page 110
The Average Slope of a Watershed......Page 111
The Global Slope Index......Page 112
The Index of Similarity of Hydrological Behavior......Page 113
3.3.2 The Drainage Network......Page 114
Typology of Drainage......Page 115
Topology of the Drainage Network......Page 116
The Orders of a River......Page 117
Characteristic Lengths and Dimensions......Page 118
The Development of the Drainage Network......Page 119
Hydrographic Density......Page 120
Laws of Drainage Network Composition......Page 121
The Fractal Dimension of the Drainage Network......Page 124
Hack’s Law......Page 128
Urbanized Areas......Page 129
Open Water Surfaces......Page 130
3.4.2 Soil Type......Page 131
3.4.3 Geology......Page 134
3.5.1 General Introduction to DEMs and DTMs......Page 135
3.5.2 In Switzerland......Page 136
3.6 CONCLUSIONS......Page 140
4.1.2 Aerosols......Page 141
4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF CLOUDS......Page 143
4.3.2 The Generation of Precipitation by the Bergeron- Findeisen Effect......Page 144
4.4 PRECIPITATION REGIMES......Page 145
4.5 MEASURING PRECIPITATION......Page 146
4.6.2 Publication of Precipitation Data......Page 147
4.7.1 Temporal Variability of Precipitation Fields......Page 148
4.7.2 Rainstorms and Intensities......Page 150
4.7.3 Statistical Analysis of Time Series......Page 151
4.7.4 The Concept of Return Period......Page 153
4.7.6 Utilization of IDF Curves......Page 155
4.7.7 The Construction of IDF Curves......Page 156
4.7.8 Rainfall Structure......Page 159
4.8 REGIONAL EVALUATION OF PRECIPITATION......Page 160
4.8.2 Converting Point Rainfall to Average Rainfall over an Area......Page 161
4.9 CONCLUSION......Page 162
5.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 163
5.1.2 Evaporation and Transpiration......Page 164
5.2.1 Description and formulation of the physical process......Page 166
5.2.2 Meteorological Factors Influencing Evaporation......Page 167
5.2.3 Physical Factors Involved in the Evaporation Process......Page 177
5.2.4 Estimating Evaporation from Waterbodies and Bare Soils......Page 179
5.3.1 Review of the Physical Processes of Plant Transpiration......Page 181
5.3.2 Factors Involved in the Evapotranspiration Process......Page 183
5.3.3 Evaluating Evapotranspiration......Page 184
5.4.1 Meteorological and Vegetal Factors involved in Interception......Page 190
5.4.2 Interception and the Water Budget......Page 193
5.4.3 Analytical Expression of Interception......Page 194
5.4.5 Order of Magnitude of the Interception Process......Page 195
5.5 CONCLUSION......Page 197
6.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 199
6.2.1 Definitions and Parameters of Infiltration......Page 200
6.2.2 Factors Influencing Infiltration......Page 202
6.2.3 Variations in the Rate of Infiltration during a Storm......Page 203
6.2.4 Modeling the Infiltration Process......Page 205
6.3.1 General Introduction......Page 208
6.3.4 Groundwater Flow......Page 210
6.3.5 The Annual Flow Balance......Page 211
6.4.1 Sediment Transport in Waterways......Page 212
6.4.2 Sediment Production Rate and Mechanical Erosion in the Watershed......Page 213
6.4.3 The Distribution of the Sediment Production Rate around the World......Page 214
6.5 CONCLUSIONS......Page 215
7.2.1 Definitions......Page 217
7.2.2 Introduction to Limnology and General Characteristics of Lakes......Page 218
7.3.1 Saturated versus Unsaturated Zones......Page 219
7.3.2 Soil Water......Page 221
7.3.3 Subsoil Water and Groundwater......Page 224
7.4.1 Snow Cover......Page 229
7.4.2 Ice Cover......Page 231
7.5 CONCLUSION......Page 232
8.1.1 Rain Gauge......Page 233
8.1.2 Recording Gauges......Page 235
8.1.3 Radar......Page 236
8.2.1 Factors Affecting the Measurement of Evaporation......Page 238
8.2.3 Measuring Evaporation from Bare Soil......Page 241
8.3.1 Definitions......Page 243
8.3.2 Measuring Water Levels ( Limnimetry)......Page 244
Gauging with Current Meters......Page 247
Float Gauge......Page 249
Electromagnetic probes......Page 250
General principle......Page 251
Method for Constant Flow ( continuous injection)......Page 253
8.4 MEASURING SEDIMENT TRANSPORT IN RIVERS......Page 254
Sediment Sampling Equipment......Page 255
Calculation of the Solid Discharge in Suspension......Page 256
Measuring the Bed-load Discharge......Page 257
8.5 MEASURING INFILTRATION......Page 258
8.6.1 Neutron Probe......Page 260
8.6.2 TDR Technique ( Time Domain Reflectometry)......Page 261
8.6.3 Measuring Electrical Resistance......Page 262
8.7 CONCLUSION......Page 263
9.1.1 Data Acquisition......Page 265
9.1.3 Data Checks......Page 266
9.1.5 Dissemination and Publication......Page 267
9.2 ERROR IDENTIFICATION AND MEASUREMENT
CORRECTION......Page 268
9.3.1 Steps to a Test......Page 269
Tests According to their Objective......Page 272
9.3.3 Data Check: Example of the Viège River Discharge......Page 273
Parametric Tests......Page 275
Nonparametric tests......Page 280
Double Mass Method......Page 282
Residual Accumulation Method......Page 283
9.3.6 Several Parameters - Local Scale......Page 285
Multivariate Statistical Methods......Page 286
9.3.8 Estimating Missing Data and Data Correction......Page 287
9.4 CONCLUSIONS......Page 288
10.1.1 Monthly Discharge Coefficient......Page 289
10.1.2 Classification of Hydrological Regimes......Page 291
10.1.4 Quantitative Aspects......Page 292
10.2.1 Glacial Regime......Page 293
10.2.2 Nival Regime......Page 294
10.2.4 Tropical Pluvial Regime......Page 295
10.3.2 Nivo- Pluvial Regime......Page 297
10.3.3 Pluvio- nival regime......Page 298
10.5 HYDROLOGICAL REGIMES IN SWITZERLAND......Page 299
10.6 CONCLUSIONS......Page 300
11.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 301
11.2 GENERAL INFORMATION......Page 302
11.3 DIRECT PRECIPITATION ON THE SURFACE OF A WATERWAY......Page 303
11.4.1 General Principles......Page 304
11.4.2 Isotopic Tracers......Page 305
The Principle......Page 306
Variations in the Isotopic Composition of Water......Page 307
Conditions for Use......Page 308
Other type of tracers......Page 309
Three-Component Model: The EMMA Method......Page 311
11.5.1 Infiltration- Excess Overland Flow ( Hortonian Flow)......Page 312
11.5.2 Saturation Excess Overland Flow......Page 314
11.5.3 Pinpointing Saturated Surfaces......Page 315
11.6.1 The Piston Effect......Page 316
Definition of a Macropore......Page 317
Type and Origins of Macropores......Page 318
Relationship between Macroporosity and Infiltration......Page 319
Relationship between Macropores and Subsurface Flow......Page 321
11.6.4 Return Flow......Page 322
11.6.5 The Processes of Flow Generation: A Synthetic Attempt......Page 324
11.7 FLOW DUE TO SNOWMELT......Page 325
11.7.1 Snowmelt......Page 326
11.7.2 Water Movement through Snow......Page 327
11.8 HYDROLOGICAL RESPONSE OF THE WATERSHED: FROM PROCESSES TO FLOW......Page 328
11.8.1 Analysis of Rain- Discharge Events......Page 330
11.8.2 Flood Genesis......Page 331
11.8.3 . Factors Affecting the Hydrological Response......Page 332
11.10 GENERAL CONCLUSION......Page 333
References......Page 335
LIST OF ACRONYMS......Page 341