Human Physiology 15th Edition

Cover
Title
Copyright
Contents
Preface
1 The Study of Body Function
	1.1 Introduction to Physiology
		Scientific Method
	1.2 Homeostasis and Feedback Control
		History of Physiology
		Negative Feedback Loops
		Positive Feedback
		Neural and Endocrine Regulation
		Feedback Control of Hormone Secretion
	1.3 The Primary Tissues
		Muscle Tissue
		Nerve Tissue
		Epithelial Tissue
		Connective Tissue
	1.4 Organs and Systems
		An Example of an Organ: The Skin
		Systems
		Body-Fluid Compartments
	Summary
	Review Activities
2 Chemical Composition of the Body
	2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Chemical Bonds
		Atoms
		Chemical Bonds, Molecules, and Ionic Compounds
		Acids, Bases, and the pH Scale
		Organic Molecules
	2.2 Carbohydrates and Lipids
		Carbohydrates
		Lipids
	2.3 Proteins
		Structure of Proteins
		Functions of Proteins
	2.4 Nucleic Acids
		Deoxyribonucleic Acid
		Ribonucleic Acid
	Summary
	Review Activities
3 Cell Structure and Genetic Control
	3.1 Plasma Membrane and Associated Structures
		Structure of the Plasma Membrane
		Phagocytosis
		Endocytosis
		Exocytosis
		Cilia and Flagella
		Microvilli
	3.2 Cytoplasm and Its Organelles
		Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton
		Lysosomes
		Peroxisomes
		Mitochondria
		Ribosomes
		Endoplasmic Reticulum
		Golgi Complex
	3.3 Cell Nucleus and Gene Expression
		Genome and Proteome
		Chromatin
		RNA Synthesis
		RNA Interference
	3.4 Protein Synthesis and Secretion
		Transfer RNA
		Formation of a Polypeptide
		Functions of the Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Complex
		Protein Degradation
	3.5 Dna Synthesis and Cell Division
		DNA Replication
		The Cell Cycle
		Mitosis
		Meiosis
		Epigenetic Inheritance
	Interactions
	Summary
	Review Activities
4 Enzymes and Energy
	4.1 Enzymes as Catalysts
		Mechanism of Enzyme Action
		Naming of Enzymes
	4.2 Control of Enzyme Activity
		Effects of Temperature and pH
		Cofactors and Coenzymes
		Enzyme Activation
		Substrate Concentration and Reversible Reactions
		Metabolic Pathways
	4.3 Bioenergetics
		Endergonic and Exergonic Reactions
		Coupled Reactions: ATP
		Coupled Reactions: Oxidation-Reduction
	Summary
	Review Activities
5 Cell Respiration and Metabolism
	5.1 Glycolysis and the Lactic Acid Pathway
		Glycolysis
		Lactic Acid Pathway
	5.2 Aerobic Respiration
		Citric Acid Cycle
		Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation
		Coupling of Electron Transport to ATP Production
		ATP Balance Sheet
	5.3 Interconversion of Glucose, Lactic Acid, and Glycogen
		Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis
		Cori Cycle
	5.4 Metabolism of Lipids and Proteins
		Lipid Metabolism
		Amino Acid Metabolism
		Uses of Different Energy Sources
	Interactions
	Summary
	Review Activities
6 Interactions Between Cells and the Extracellular Environment
	6.1 Extracellular Environment
		Body Fluids
		Extracellular Matrix
		Categories of Transport Across the Plasma Membrane
	6.2 Diffusion and Osmosis
		Diffusion Through the Plasma Membrane
		Rate of Diffusion
		Osmosis
		Regulation of Blood Osmolality
	6.3 Carrier-Mediated Transport
		Facilitated Diffusion
		Active Transport
		Bulk Transport
	6.4 The Membrane Potential
		Equilibrium Potentials
		Resting Membrane Potential
	6.5 Cell Signaling
		Second Messengers
		G-Proteins
	Interactions
	Summary
	Review Activities
7 The Nervous System
	7.1 Neurons and Supporting Cells
		Neurons
		Classification of Neurons and Nerves
		Neuroglia
		Neurilemma and Myelin Sheath
		Functions of Astrocytes
	7.2 Electrical Activity In Axons
		Ion Gating in Axons
		Action Potentials
		Conduction of Nerve Impulses
	7.3 The Synapse
		Electrical Synapses: Gap Junctions
		Chemical Synapses
	7.4 Acetylcholine as a Neurotransmitter
		Chemically Regulated Channels
		Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
		Acetylcholine in the PNS
		Acetylcholine in the CNS
	7.5 Monoamines as Neurotransmitters
		Serotonin as a Neurotransmitter
		Dopamine as a Neurotransmitter
		Norepinephrine as a Neurotransmitter
	7.6 Other Neurotransmitters
		Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters
		Polypeptides as Neurotransmitters
		Endocannabinoids as Neurotransmitters
		Gases as Neurotransmitters
		ATP and Adenosine as Neurotransmitters
	7.7 Synaptic Integration
		Synaptic Plasticity
		Synaptic Inhibition
	Summary
	Review Activities
8 The Central Nervous System
	8.1 Structural Organization of the Brain
	8.2 Cerebrum
		Cerebral Cortex
		Basal Nuclei
		Cerebral Lateralization
		Language
		Limbic System and Emotion
		Memory
		Emotion and Memory
	8.3 Diencephalon
		Thalamus and Epithalamus
		Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
	8.4 Midbrain and Hindbrain
		Midbrain
		Hindbrain
		Reticular Activating System in Sleep and Arousal
	8.5 Spinal Cord Tracts
		Ascending Tracts
		Descending Tracts
	8.6 Cranial and Spinal Nerves
		Cranial Nerves
		Spinal Nerves
	Summary
	Review Activities
9 The Autonomic Nervous System
	9.1 Neural Control of Involuntary Effectors
		Autonomic Neurons
		Visceral Effector Organs
	9.2 Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System
		Sympathetic Division
		Parasympathetic Division
	9.3 Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
		Adrenergic and Cholinergic Synaptic Transmission
		Responses to Adrenergic Stimulation
		Responses to Cholinergic Stimulation
		Other Autonomic Neurotransmitters
		Organs with Dual Innervation
		Organs Without Dual Innervation
		Control of the Autonomic Nervous System by Higher Brain Centers
	Interactions
	Summary
	Review Activities
10   Sensory Physiology
	10.1 Characteristics of Sensory Receptors
		Categories of Sensory Receptors
		Law of Specific Nerve Energies
		Generator (Receptor) Potential
	10.2 Cutaneous Sensations
		Neural Pathways for Somatesthetic Sensations
		Receptive Fields and Sensory Acuity
		Lateral Inhibition
	10.3 Taste and Smell
		Taste
		Smell
	10.4 Vestibular Apparatus and Equilibrium
		Sensory Hair Cells of the Vestibular Apparatus
		Utricle and Saccule
		Semicircular Canals
	10.5 The Ears and Hearing
		Outer Ear
		Middle Ear
		Cochlea
		Spiral Organ (Organ of Corti)
	10.6 The Eyes and Vision
		Refraction
		Accommodation
		Visual Acuity
	10.7 Retina
		Effect of Light on the Rods
		Electrical Activity of Retinal Cells
		Cones and Color Vision
		Visual Acuity and Sensitivity
		Neural Pathways from the Retina
	10.8 Neural Processing of Visual Information
		Ganglion Cell Receptive Fields
		Lateral Geniculate Nuclei
		Cerebral Cortex
	Interactions
	Summary
	Review Activities
11   Endocrine Glands
	11.1 Endocrine Glands and Hormones
		Common Aspects of Neural and Endocrine Regulation
		Chemical Classification of Hormones
		Prohormones and Prehormones
		Hormone Interactions
		Effects of Hormone Concentrations on Tissue Response
	11.2 Mechanisms of Hormone Action
		Hormones That Bind to Nuclear Receptor Proteins
		Hormones That Use Second Messengers
	11.3 Pituitary Gland
		Pituitary Hormones
		Hypothalamic Control of the Posterior Pituitary
		Hypothalamic Control of the Anterior Pituitary
		Feedback Control of the Anterior Pituitary
		Higher Brain Function and Pituitary Secretion
	11.4 Adrenal Glands
		Functions of the Adrenal Cortex
		Functions of the Adrenal Medulla
		Stress and the Adrenal Gland
	11.5 Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands
		Production and Action of Thyroid Hormones
		Parathyroid Glands
	11.6 Pancreas and Other Endocrine Glands
		Pancreatic Islets
		Pineal Gland
		Gastrointestinal Tract
		Gonads and Placenta
	11.7 Paracrine and Autocrine Regulation
		Examples of Paracrine and Autocrine Regulation
		Prostaglandins
	Interactions
	Summary
	Review Activities
12   Muscle
	12.1 Skeletal Muscles
		Structure of Skeletal Muscles
		Motor End Plates and Motor Units
	12.2 Mechanisms of Contraction
		Sliding Filament Theory of Contraction
		Regulation of Contraction
	12.3 Contractions of Skeletal Muscles
		Twitch, Summation, and Tetanus
		Types of Muscle Contractions
		Series-Elastic Component
		Length-Tension Relationship
	12.4 Energy Requirements of Skeletal Muscles
		Metabolism of Skeletal Muscles
		Slow- and Fast-Twitch Fibers
		Muscle Fatigue
		Adaptations of Muscles to Exercise Training
		Muscle Damage and Repair
	12.5 Neural Control of Skeletal Muscles
		Muscle Spindle
		Alpha and Gamma Motor Neurons
		Coactivation of Alpha and Gamma Motor Neurons
		Skeletal Muscle Reflexes
		Upper Motor Neuron Control of Skeletal Muscles
	12.6 Cardiac and Smooth Muscles
		Cardiac Muscle
		Smooth Muscle
	Interactions
	Summary
	Review Activities
13   Blood, Heart, and Circulation
	13.1 Functions and Components of the Circulatory System
		Functions of the Circulatory System
		Major Components of the Circulatory System
	13.2 Composition of the Blood
		Blood Plasma
		The Formed Elements of Blood
		Hematopoiesis
		Red Blood Cell Antigens and Blood Typing
		Blood Clotting
		Dissolution of Clots
	13.3 Structure of the Heart
		Pulmonary and Systemic Circulations
		Atrioventricular and Semilunar Valves
		Heart Sounds
	13.4 Cardiac Cycle
		Pressure Changes During the Cardiac Cycle
	13.5 Electrical Activity of the Heart and the Electrocardiogram
		Electrical Activity of the Heart
		The Electrocardiogram
	13.6 Blood Vessels
		Arteries
		Capillaries
		Veins
	13.7 Atherosclerosis and Cardiac Arrhythmias
		Atherosclerosis
		Arrhythmias Detected by the Electrocardiograph
	13.8 Lymphatic System
	Summary
	Review Activities
14   Cardiac Output, Blood Flow, and Blood Pressure
	14.1 Cardiac Output
		Regulation of Cardiac Rate
		Regulation of Stroke Volume
		Venous Return
	14.2 Blood Volume
		Exchange of Fluid Between Capillaries and Tissues
		Regulation of Blood Volume by the Kidneys
	14.3 Vascular Resistance to Blood Flow
		Physical Laws Describing Blood Flow
		Extrinsic Regulation of Blood Flow
		Paracrine Regulation of Blood Flow
		Intrinsic Regulation of Blood Flow
	14.4 Blood Flow to the Heart and Skeletal Muscles
		Aerobic Requirements of the Heart
		Regulation of Coronary Blood Flow
		Regulation of Blood Flow Through Skeletal Muscles
		Circulatory Changes During Exercise
	14.5 Blood Flow to the Brain and Skin
		Cerebral Circulation
		Cutaneous Blood Flow
	14.6 Blood Pressure
		Baroreceptor Reflex
		Atrial Stretch Reflexes
		Measurement of Blood Pressure
		Pulse Pressure and Mean Arterial Pressure
	14.7 Hypertension, Shock, and Congestive Heart Failure
		Hypertension
		Circulatory Shock
		Congestive Heart Failure
	Interactions
	Summary
	Review Activities
15   The Immune System
	15.1 Defense Mechanisms
		Innate (Nonspecific) Immunity
		Adaptive (Specific) Immunity
		Lymphocytes and Lymphoid Organs
		Local Inflammation
	15.2 Functions of B Lymphocytes
		Antibodies
		The Complement System
	15.3 Functions of T Lymphocytes
		Cytotoxic, Helper, and Regulatory T Lymphocytes
		Interactions Between Antigen-Presenting Cells and T Lymphocytes
	15.4 Active and Passive Immunity
		Active Immunity and the Clonal Selection Theory
		Immunological Tolerance
		Passive Immunity
	15.5 Tumor Immunology
		Innate Lymphoid Cells
		Effects of Aging and Stress
	15.6 Diseases Caused by the Immune System
		Autoimmunity
		Immune Complex Diseases
		Allergy
	Interactions
	Summary
	Review Activities
16   Respiratory Physiology
	16.1 The Respiratory System
		Structure of the Respiratory System
		Thoracic Cavity
	16.2 Physical Aspects of Ventilation
		Intrapulmonary and Intrapleural Pressures
		Physical Properties of the Lungs
		Surfactant and Respiratory Distress Syndrome
	16.3 Mechanics of Breathing
		Inspiration and Expiration
		Pulmonary Function Tests
		Pulmonary Disorders
	16.4 Gas Exchange in the Lungs
		Calculation of PO2
		Partial Pressures of Gases in Blood
		Significance of Blood PO2 and PCO2 Measurements
		Pulmonary Circulation and Ventilation/Perfusion Ratios
		Disorders Caused by High Partial Pressures of Gases
	16.5 Regulation of Breathing
		Brain Stem Respiratory Centers
		Effects of Blood PCO2 and pH on Ventilation
		Effects of Blood PO2 on Ventilation
		Effects of Pulmonary Receptors on Ventilation
	16.6 Hemoglobin and Oxygen Transport
		Hemoglobin
		The Oxyhemoglobin Dissociation Curve
		Effect of pH and Temperature on Oxygen Transport
		Effect of 2,3-DPG on Oxygen Transport
		Inherited Defects in Hemoglobin Structure and Function
		Muscle Myoglobin
	16.7 Carbon Dioxide Transport
		The Chloride Shift
		The Reverse Chloride Shift
	16.8 Acid-Base Balance of the Blood
		Principles of Acid-Base Balance
		Ventilation and Acid-Base Balance
	16.9 Effect of Exercise and High Altitude on Respiratory Function
		Ventilation During Exercise
		Acclimatization to High Altitude
	Interactions
	Summary
	Review Activities
17   Physiology of the Kidneys
	17.1 Structure and Function of the Kidneys
		Gross Structure of the Urinary System
		Control of Micturition
		Microscopic Structure of the Kidney
	17.2 Glomerular Filtration
		Glomerular Ultrafiltrate
		Regulation of Glomerular Filtration Rate
	17.3 Reabsorption of Salt and Water
		Reabsorption in the Proximal Tubule
		The Countercurrent Multiplier System
		Collecting Duct: Effect of Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
	17.4 Renal Plasma Clearance
		Transport Process Affecting Renal Clearance
		Renal Clearance of Inulin: Measurement of GFR
		Renal Clearance Measurements
		Reabsorption of Glucose
	17.5 Renal Control of Electrolyte and Acid-Base Balance
		Role of Aldosterone in Na+/K+ Balance
		Control of Aldosterone Secretion
		Natriuretic Peptides
		Relationship Between Na+, K+, and H+
		Renal Acid-Base Regulation
	17.6 Diuretics and Renal Function Tests
		Use of Diuretics
		Renal Function Tests and Kidney Disease
	Interactions
	Summary
	Review Activities
18   The Digestive System
	18.1 Introduction to the Digestive System
		Layers of the Alimentary Tract
		Regulation of the Alimentary Tract
	18.2 From Mouth to Stomach
		Esophagus
		Stomach
		Pepsin and Hydrochloric Acid Secretion
	18.3 Small Intestine
		Villi and Microvilli
		Intestinal Enzymes
		Intestinal Contractions and Motility
	18.4 Large Intestine
		Intestinal Microbiota
		Fluid and Electrolyte Absorption in the Intestine
		Defecation
	18.5 Liver, Gallbladder, and Pancreas
		Structure of the Liver
		Functions of the Liver
		Gallbladder
		Pancreas
	18.6 Regulation of the Digestive System
		Regulation of Gastric Function
		Regulation of Intestinal Function
		Regulation of Pancreatic Juice and Bile Secretion
		Trophic Effects of Gastrointestinal Hormones
	18.7 Digestion and Absorption of Food
		Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
		Digestion and Absorption of Proteins
		Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
	Interactions
	Summary
	Review Activities
19   Regulation of Metabolism
	19.1 Nutritional Requirements
		Metabolic Rate and Caloric Requirements
		Anabolic Requirements
		Vitamins and Minerals
		Free Radicals and Antioxidants
	19.2 Regulation of Energy Metabolism
		Regulatory Functions of Adipose Tissue
		Regulation of Hunger and Metabolic Rate
		Caloric Expenditures
		Hormonal Regulation of Metabolism
	19.3 Energy Regulation by the Pancreatic Islets
		Regulation of Insulin and Glucagon Secretion
		Insulin and Glucagon: Absorptive State
		Insulin and Glucagon: Postabsorptive State
	19.4 Diabetes Mellitus and Hypoglycemia
		Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
		Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
		Hypoglycemia
	19.5 Metabolic Regulation by Adrenal Hormones, Thyroxine, and Growth Hormone
		Adrenal Hormones
		Thyroxine
		Growth Hormone
	19.6 Regulation of Calcium and Phosphate Balance
		Bone Deposition and Resorption
		Hormonal Regulation of Bone
		1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3
		Negative Feedback Control of Calcium and Phosphate Balance
	Summary
	Review Activities
20   Reproduction
	20.1 Sexual Reproduction
		Sex Determination
		Development of Accessory Sex Organs and External Genitalia
		Disorders of Embryonic Sexual Development
	20.2 Endocrine Regulation of Reproduction
		Interactions Among the Hypothalamus, Pituitary Gland, and Gonads
		Onset of Puberty
		Pineal Gland
		Human Sexual Response
	20.3 Male Reproductive System
		Control of Gonadotropin Secretion
		Endocrine Functions of the Testes
		Spermatogenesis
		Male Accessory Sex Organs
		Erection, Emission, and Ejaculation
		Male Fertility
	20.4 Female Reproductive System
		Ovarian Cycle
		Ovulation
		Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Ovarian Axis
	20.5 Menstrual Cycle
		Phases of the Menstrual Cycle: Cyclic Changes in the Ovaries
		Cyclic Changes in the Endometrium
		Effects of Pheromones, Stress, and Body Fat
		Contraceptive Methods
		Menopause
	20.6 Fertilization, Pregnancy, and Parturition
		Fertilization
		Cleavage and Blastocyst Formation
		Implantation of the Blastocyst and Formation of the Placenta
		Exchange of Molecules Across the Placenta
		Endocrine Functions of the Placenta
		Labor and Parturition
		Lactation
	Concluding Remarks
	Interactions
	Summary
	Review Activities
Appendixes
	Answers to Test Your Knowledge Questions
	Medical and Pharmacological Abbreviations
Glossary
Index