Human Biology. Concepts and Current Issues

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 3
Copyright Page......Page 4
About the Author......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 19
Acknowledgments......Page 20
New to This Edition......Page 21
Current Issue: Mandatory Childhood Vaccinations......Page 24
1.1 The characteristics of life......Page 26
Living things are grouped according to their characteristics......Page 29
The defining features of humans......Page 30
Human biology can be studied on any level of biological organization......Page 31
The scientific method is a process for testing ideas......Page 33
Making the findings known......Page 36
1.4 Sources of scientific information vary in style and quality......Page 37
Appreciate the value of statistics......Page 38
Distinguish anecdotes from scientific evidence......Page 39
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: Correlation versus Causation......Page 40
Science improves technology and the human physical condition......Page 41
The importance of making informed choices......Page 42
Current Issue: Functional Foods and Dietary Supplements—Safe and Effective?......Page 46
Atoms are the smallest functional units of an element......Page 48
Isotopes have a different number of neutrons......Page 49
Energy fuels life’s activities......Page 50
Chemical bonds link atoms to form molecules......Page 51
Living organisms contain only certain elements......Page 53
Water is the biological solvent......Page 54
2.4 The importance of hydrogen ions......Page 55
The pH scale expresses hydrogen ion concentration......Page 56
2.5 The organic molecules of living organisms......Page 57
Macromolecules are synthesized and broken down within the cell......Page 58
Monosaccharides are simple sugars......Page 59
Polysaccharides store energy......Page 60
Phospholipids are the primary component of cell membranes......Page 61
2.8 Proteins: Complex structures constructed of amino acids......Page 62
Protein function depends on structure......Page 64
Enzymes facilitate biochemical reactions......Page 65
2.9 Nucleic acids store genetic information......Page 66
2.10 ATP carries energy......Page 68
Current Issue: The Use of Human Stem Cells......Page 72
Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and organelles......Page 74
3.2 Cell structure reflects cell function......Page 75
Cells remain small to stay efficient......Page 76
3.3 A plasma membrane surrounds the cell......Page 77
The plasma membrane is a lipid bilayer......Page 78
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: Birth Dating Human Cells......Page 79
Passive transport moves with the concentration gradient......Page 80
Active transport requires energy......Page 81
Endocytosis and exocytosis move materials in bulk......Page 82
The sodium-potassium pump helps maintain cell volume......Page 83
Ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis......Page 85
The endoplasmic reticulum is the manufacturing center......Page 87
Vesicles: Membrane-bound storage and shipping containers......Page 88
Fat and glycogen: Sources of energy......Page 89
The cytoskeleton supports the cell......Page 90
3.7 Cells use and transform matter and energy......Page 91
Glucose provides the cell with energy......Page 92
Fats and proteins are additional energy sources......Page 97
Anaerobic pathways make energy available without oxygen......Page 98
Current Issue: Can Lipodissolve Melt Away Fat?......Page 102
4.2 Epithelial tissues cover body surfaces and cavities......Page 104
Epithelial tissues are classified according to cell shape......Page 105
The basement membrane provides structural support......Page 106
Fibrous connective tissues provide strength and elasticity......Page 107
Specialized connective tissues serve special functions......Page 109
Skeletal muscles move body parts......Page 110
The human body is organized by organ systems......Page 111
Tissue membranes line body cavities......Page 114
Skin consists of epidermis and dermis......Page 115
Health & Wellness: Suntans, Smoking, and Your Skin......Page 118
Homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback......Page 119
Negative feedback helps maintain core body temperature......Page 120
Positive feedback amplifies events......Page 121
Current Issue: A Black Market in Human Bones?......Page 124
Bone contains living cells......Page 126
5.2 Bone development begins in the embryo......Page 128
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: A Really Costly Drug......Page 129
Bones can change in shape, size, and strength......Page 130
The axial skeleton forms the midline of the body......Page 131
The appendicular skeleton: Pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle, and limbs......Page 134
Joints vary from immovable to freely movable......Page 136
Ligaments, tendons, and muscles strengthen and stabilize joints......Page 137
Arthritis is inflammation of joints......Page 139
Osteoporosis is caused by excessive bone loss......Page 140
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: Treating “Pre-osteoporosis”......Page 141
Current Issue: Drug Abuse Among Athletes......Page 144
Skeletal muscles cause bones to move......Page 146
A muscle is composed of many muscle cells......Page 148
The contractile unit is a sarcomere......Page 149
Calcium initiates the sliding filament mechanism......Page 150
When nerve activation ends, contraction ends......Page 152
Muscles require energy to contract and to relax......Page 153
The degree of nerve activation influences force......Page 155
Slow-twitch versus fast-twitch fibers: Endurance versus strength......Page 157
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: Beating the Testosterone Doping Test......Page 158
How cardiac and smooth muscles are activated......Page 159
Arrangement of myosin and actin filaments......Page 160
Tetanus......Page 161
Fasciitis......Page 162
Current Issue: Should You Bank Your Baby’s Cord Blood?......Page 164
7.1 The components and functions of blood......Page 166
Red blood cells transport oxygen and carbon dioxide......Page 168
All blood cells and platelets originate from stem cells......Page 169
RBCs have a short life span......Page 170
White blood cells defend the body......Page 171
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: The Spleen Stores Monocytes......Page 172
Vascular spasms constrict blood vessels to reduce blood flow......Page 173
A blood clot forms around the platelet plug......Page 174
Health & Wellness: Donating Blood......Page 175
7.3 Human blood types......Page 176
ABO blood typing is based on A and B antigens......Page 177
Rh blood typing is based on Rh factor......Page 178
Mononucleosis: Contagious viral infection of lymphocytes......Page 179
Leukemia: Uncontrolled production of white blood cells......Page 180
Thrombocytopenia: Reduction in platelet number......Page 181
Current Issue: Comparative Effectiveness Research......Page 184
Arteries transport blood away from the heart......Page 186
Capillaries: Where blood exchanges substances with tissues......Page 188
Lymphatic system helps maintain blood volume......Page 189
Veins return blood to the heart......Page 190
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: Boosting Cardiac Repair Mechanisms......Page 191
The heart has four chambers and four valves......Page 192
The pulmonary circuit provides for gas exchange......Page 193
The systemic circuit serves the rest of the body......Page 194
Health & Wellness: Cholesterol and Atherosclerosis......Page 195
The cardiac cycle: The heart contracts and relaxes......Page 196
Heart sounds reflect closing heart valves......Page 197
Electrocardiogram records the heart’s electrical activity......Page 198
8.3 Blood exerts pressure against vessel walls......Page 199
Measuring Blood Pressure......Page 200
Hypertension: High blood pressure can be dangerous......Page 201
Nerves and hormones adjust cardiac output......Page 202
Local requirements dictate local blood flows......Page 203
Angina: Chest pain warns of impaired blood flow......Page 204
Heart failure: The heart becomes less efficient......Page 205
8.6 Reducing your risk of cardiovascular disease......Page 206
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: Stress Reduction and Heart Attacks......Page 207
Current Issue: AIDS: A Crisis in Africa, a Challenge for the World......Page 210
Bacteria: Single-celled living organisms......Page 212
Viruses: Tiny infectious agents......Page 213
Transmissibility, mode of transmission, and virulence determine health risk......Page 214
MJ’s Human Biology Blog A Way to Cure HIV Infection?......Page 215
Tonsils protect the throat......Page 217
Impeding pathogen entry in areas not covered by skin......Page 218
Phagocytes engulf foreign cells......Page 219
Inflammation: Redness, warmth, swelling, and pain......Page 220
The complement system assists other defense mechanisms......Page 221
Fever raises body temperature......Page 222
B cells: Antibody-mediated immunity......Page 223
T cells: Cell-mediated immunity......Page 225
9.6 Immune memory creates immunity......Page 228
Active immunization: An effective weapon against pathogens......Page 229
Monoclonal antibodies: Laboratory-created for commercial use......Page 230
Allergies: A hypersensitive immune system......Page 231
Autoimmune disorders: Defective recognition of “self”......Page 232
9.10 Immune deficiency: The special case of AIDS......Page 233
HIV is transmitted in body fluids......Page 234
AIDS develops slowly......Page 235
Risky behaviors increase your chances of getting AIDS......Page 236
New treatments offer hope......Page 237
Current Issue: Limiting Exposure to Secondhand Smoke......Page 240
10.2 The respiratory system consists of upper and lower respiratory tracts......Page 242
The lower respiratory tract exchanges gases......Page 244
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: Snus—Smokeless Tobacco Made Easy......Page 245
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: Smoking and Breast Sagging......Page 249
Lung volumes and vital capacity measure lung function......Page 250
Gases diffuse according to their partial pressures......Page 251
Hemoglobin transports most oxygen molecules......Page 252
Most CO2 is transported in plasma as bicarbonate\n......Page 254
Chemical receptors monitor CO2, H+, and O2 levels......Page 255
We can exert some conscious control......Page 257
Microorganisms can cause respiratory disorders......Page 258
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: Living with Cystic Fibrosis......Page 259
Congestive heart failure impairs lung function......Page 260
Current Issue: Medically Induced Coma......Page 264
11.1 The nervous system has two principal parts......Page 266
11.2 Neurons are the communication cells of the nervous system......Page 267
Sodium-potassium pump maintains resting potential......Page 268
An action potential is a sudden reversal of membrane voltage......Page 269
11.4 Neuroglial cells support and protect neurons......Page 271
Neurotransmitter is released......Page 273
Neurotransmitters exert excitatory or inhibitory effects......Page 274
Nerves carry signals to and from the CNS......Page 275
The somatic division controls skeletal muscles......Page 276
The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions oppose each other......Page 277
11.7 The brain and spinal cord constitute the CNS......Page 279
Bone, meninges, and the blood-brain barrier protect the CNS......Page 280
The spinal cord relays information......Page 281
The hindbrain: Movement and automatic functions......Page 282
The forebrain: Emotions and conscious thought......Page 283
11.9 Brain activity continues during sleep......Page 285
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: Young Adults Turn to Sleeping Pills......Page 286
11.11 Memory involves storing and retrieving information......Page 287
11.12 Psychoactive drugs affect higher brain functions......Page 288
Infections......Page 289
Brain tumors: Abnormal growths......Page 290
Disorders of neural and synaptic transmission......Page 291
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: Ginkgo Doesn’t Prevent Dementia......Page 292
Current Issue: DWD: Driving While Distracted......Page 296
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: Sensing Danger in the Air......Page 298
The CNS interprets nerve impulses based on origin and frequency......Page 299
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: Can You Taste Bitter Foods?......Page 300
Mechanoreceptors indicate limb position, muscle length, and tension......Page 301
Pain receptors signal discomfort......Page 302
Smell: Chemoreceptors bind with odorants......Page 304
The middle ear amplifies sound......Page 306
The inner ear sorts and converts sounds......Page 307
12.5 The inner ear plays an essential role in balance......Page 309
Sensing head position and acceleration......Page 310
Structure of the eye......Page 311
Regulating the amount of light and focusing the image......Page 312
Eyeball shape affects focus......Page 313
Light is converted into action potentials......Page 314
Rods provide vision in dim light......Page 315
Disorders of the ears......Page 316
Disorders of the eyes......Page 317
Current Issue: Dealing with Type 2 Diabetes......Page 322
13.1 The endocrine system produces hormones......Page 324
Nonsteroid hormones bind to receptors on target cell membranes......Page 326
Hormones participate in negative feedback loops......Page 327
The posterior pituitary stores ADH and oxytocin......Page 328
The anterior pituitary produces six key hormones......Page 330
Pituitary disorders: Hypersecretion or hyposecretion......Page 332
13.4 The pancreas secretes glucagon, insulin, and somatostatin......Page 333
The adrenal cortex: Glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids......Page 334
13.6 Thyroid and parathyroid glands......Page 335
The thyroid gland: Thyroxine speeds cellular metabolism......Page 336
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) controls blood calcium levels......Page 337
The pineal gland secretes melatonin......Page 339
Endocrine functions of the heart, the digestive system, and the kidneys......Page 340
Diabetes mellitus: Inadequate control of blood sugar......Page 341
Addison’s disease: Too little cortisol and aldosterone......Page 342
Cushing’s syndrome: Too much cortisol......Page 343
Current Issue: Is “Overweight” Overstated?......Page 346
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: Is Being Overweight a Health Risk?......Page 348
14.1 The digestive system brings nutrients into the body......Page 349
Two types of motility aid digestive processes......Page 350
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: Obesity in Close Mutual Friends......Page 351
Saliva begins the process of digestion......Page 352
14.3 The pharynx and esophagus deliver food to the stomach......Page 353
Gastric juice breaks down proteins......Page 354
14.5 The small intestine digests food and absorbs nutrients and water......Page 355
The pancreas secretes enzymes and NaHCO3......Page 356
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: California Bans Trans Fats......Page 357
The gallbladder stores bile until needed......Page 358
Proteins and carbohydrates are absorbed by active transport......Page 359
Vitamins and minerals follow a variety of paths......Page 360
Nutrients are used or stored until needed......Page 361
MyPyramid plan offers a personalized approach......Page 362
Carbohydrates: A major energy source......Page 363
Complete proteins contain every amino acid......Page 364
Fiber benefits the colon......Page 365
BMR: Determining how many Calories we need......Page 367
Healthy weight improves overall health......Page 368
Disorders of the GI tract......Page 369
Obesity: A worldwide epidemic?......Page 370
14.13 Eating disorders: Anorexia nervosa and bulimia......Page 371
Current Issue: How Should We Allocate Scarce Kidneys?......Page 376
15.1 The urinary system contributes to homeostasis......Page 378
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: Using Urine to Diagnose Disease......Page 379
Urinary bladder stores urine......Page 380
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: Buying/Selling Kidneys......Page 381
Special blood vessels supply the tubule......Page 382
Glomerular filtration filters fluid from capillaries......Page 384
Tubular reabsorption returns filtered water and solutes to blood......Page 386
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: Encouraging Organ Donations......Page 387
Producing concentrated urine: Conserving water......Page 388
15.6 Urination depends on a reflex......Page 389
ADH regulates water balance......Page 390
The renin-angiotensin system controls blood volume and blood pressure......Page 391
Atrial natriuretic hormone protects against blood volume excess......Page 392
Erythropoietin stimulates production of red blood cells......Page 393
Acute and chronic renal failure impair kidney function......Page 394
Kidney transplants are a permanent solution to renal failure......Page 395
Current Issue: Would You Like a Boy or a Girl?......Page 398
16.1 The male reproductive system delivers sperm......Page 400
Accessory glands help sperm survive......Page 401
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: Infertility Patients Favor Stem Cell Research......Page 402
Testosterone affects male reproductive capacity......Page 403
The uterus nurtures the developing embryo......Page 404
The vagina: Organ of sexual intercourse and birth canal......Page 405
The ovarian cycle: Oocytes mature and are released......Page 406
The uterine cycle prepares the uterus for pregnancy......Page 408
Cyclic changes in hormone levels produce the menstrual cycle......Page 410
The male sexual response......Page 411
16.5 Birth control methods: Controlling fertility......Page 412
Hormonal methods: Pills, injections, patches, and rings......Page 413
IUDs are inserted into the uterus......Page 414
Pills that can be used after intercourse......Page 415
Infertility can have many causes......Page 416
Enhancing fertility......Page 417
16.7 Sexually transmitted diseases......Page 418
Bacterial STDs: Gonorrhea, syphilis, and chlamydia......Page 420
Viral STDs: HIV, hepatitis B, genital herpes, and HPV......Page 421
Protecting yourself against STDs......Page 422
Current Issue: Should We Clone Humans?......Page 426
17.1 The cell cycle creates new cells......Page 428
17.2 Replication, transcription, and translation: An overview......Page 429
Replication: Copying DNA before cell division......Page 430
Mutations are alterations in DNA......Page 431
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: DNA Mutations Between Generations......Page 432
Translation: Making a protein from RNA......Page 434
Mitosis: Daughter cells are identical to the parent cell......Page 435
Meiosis: Preparing for sexual reproduction......Page 437
Sex differences in meiosis: Four sperm versus one egg......Page 439
17.4 How cell reproduction is regulated......Page 440
Differentiation during early development......Page 441
Embryo splitting: Producing identical offspring......Page 442
Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer: Cloning an Adult......Page 443
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: Re-creating Undifferentiated Cells......Page 444
Current Issue: Voluntary Breast and Ovary Removal......Page 448
18.1 Tumors can be benign or cancerous......Page 450
18.2 Cancerous cells lose control of their functions and structures......Page 451
Mutant forms of proto-oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, and mutator genes contribute to cancer......Page 452
A variety of factors can lead to cancer......Page 453
The immune system plays an important role in cancer prevention......Page 455
Tumor imaging: X-rays, PET, and MRI......Page 456
Enzyme tests may detect cancer markers......Page 457
Immunotherapy promotes immune response......Page 458
18.6 The 10 most common cancers......Page 459
Lung cancer: Smoking is leading risk factor......Page 460
Breast cancer: Early detection pays off......Page 461
Cancers of colon and rectum: Tests can detect them early......Page 462
Urinary bladder cancer: Surgery is often successful if done early......Page 463
Leukemia: Chemotherapy is often effective......Page 464
18.7 Most cancers can be prevented......Page 465
Current Issue: The Promises and Perils of Genetic Testing......Page 468
19.1 Your genotype is the genetic basis of your phenotype......Page 470
Mendel established the basic principles of genetics......Page 471
Dominant alleles are expressed over recessive alleles......Page 473
Two-trait crosses: Independent assortment of genes for different traits......Page 474
Codominance: Both gene products are equally expressed......Page 476
Polygenic inheritance: Phenotype is influenced by many genes......Page 478
Both genotype and the environment affect phenotype......Page 479
19.5 Sex-linked inheritance: X and Y chromosomes carry different genes......Page 480
Sex-linked inheritance depends on genes located on sex chromosomes......Page 481
Sex-influenced traits are affected by actions of sex genes......Page 482
Down syndrome: Three copies of chromosome 21......Page 483
Alterations of the number of sex chromosomes......Page 484
Tay-Sachs disease leads to brain dysfunction......Page 485
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: Genetic Screening Tests......Page 486
19.8 Genes code for proteins, not for specific behaviors......Page 487
Current Issue: Genetically Engineered Plants......Page 490
20.1 DNA sequencing reveals structure of DNA......Page 492
Recombinant DNA technology: Isolating and cloning genes......Page 493
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: Whatever Happened to Golden Rice?......Page 494
Cloning DNA fragments: The polymerase chain reaction......Page 495
Identifying the source of DNA: DNA fingerprinting......Page 496
Transgenic bacteria have many uses......Page 497
Transgenic plants: More vitamins and better pest resistance......Page 498
Transgenic animals: A bigger challenge......Page 499
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: FDA Approves a Genetically Engineered Drug......Page 500
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: That’s One Small Step for Gene Therapy.........Page 501
Research targets cystic fibrosis and cancer......Page 502
Current Issue: Who Should Make Life and Death Decisions for You?......Page 506
One sperm fertilizes the egg......Page 508
Twins may be fraternal or identical......Page 510
21.2 Development: Cleavage, morphogenesis, differentiation, and growth......Page 511
21.3 Pre-embryonic development: The first two weeks......Page 512
Extra-embryonic membranes......Page 513
The embryo develops rapidly......Page 515
21.5 Gender development begins at six weeks......Page 516
Labor ends in delivery......Page 518
The transition from fetus to newborn......Page 520
Lactation produces milk to nourish the newborn......Page 521
Infancy: Rapid development and maturation of organ systems......Page 522
21.9 Aging takes place over time......Page 523
What causes aging?......Page 524
Body systems age at different rates......Page 525
Aging well......Page 526
21.10 Death is the final transition......Page 527
Current Issue: Who Were the Flores People?......Page 530
The fossil record: Incomplete but valuable......Page 532
Comparative anatomy and embryology provide more evidence......Page 534
Biogeography: The impact of geographic barriers and continental drift on evolutionary processes......Page 535
Random mutations underlie evolution......Page 536
Mass extinctions eliminate many species......Page 537
Organic molecules formed from atmospheric gases......Page 538
The first living cells were anaerobic......Page 539
The rise of animals and our human ancestors......Page 540
Humans are primates......Page 541
Evolution of Homo sapiens......Page 542
Differences within the human species......Page 544
Current Issue: Waiting for the Next “Big One”......Page 548
Where a species lives: Habitat and range......Page 550
Environmental resistance limits biotic potential......Page 551
23.3 Human population growth......Page 552
Population age structure is linked to economic development......Page 553
Succession leads toward a climax community......Page 554
Producers capture and convert energy, consumers rely on stored energy......Page 555
A food web: Interactions among producers and consumers......Page 557
The lower levels of an ecological pyramid support consumer populations......Page 558
Human activities disrupt ecological pyramids......Page 559
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: Dwindling Phosphorus Supplies......Page 560
The carbon cycle: Organisms exchange CO2 with the atmosphere......Page 561
Phosphorus: A sedimentary cycle......Page 562
Current Issue: Global Warming......Page 566
Excessive greenhouse gases lead to global warming......Page 568
CFCs deplete the ozone layer......Page 569
Smog blankets industrial areas......Page 570
Urbanization increases storm water runoff......Page 571
MJ’s Human Biology Blog: China’s Future Water Shortage......Page 572
Oil pollution damages oceans and shorelines......Page 573
24.3 Pollution and overuse damage the land......Page 574
24.4 Energy: Many options, many choices......Page 575
24.5 Humans are creating a biodiversity crisis......Page 576
Humans alter and destroy habitats......Page 577
Strategies to support sustainable development......Page 578
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Answers to Figure Check, Quick Check, and Test Yourself Questions......Page 601
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