How People Learn in Informal Science Environments?

Contents
Editor and Contributors
1 Introduction: Learning Theory and Its Relationship to Research in Informal Science Learning Environments
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Defining Informal Science Education
	1.3 Defining Informal Science Learning
	1.4 Learning Theory and Informal Science Education
	1.5 Chapters
		1.5.1 Part I Community of Practice
		1.5.2 Part II Critical Theory
		1.5.3 Part III Identity Theory
		1.5.4 Part IV Sociocultural, Socioscientific, and Social Entrepreneurship
		1.5.5 Part V Systems Theory
		1.5.6 Part VI Expeditionary, Place-Based, Variation Theory
		1.5.7 Part VII Theory Development
	References
Part I Community of Practice
2 Re-examining Wenger’s Community of Practice Theoretical Framework: Exploring Youth Learning in Science Research
	2.1 Examining Assumptions in Community of Practice Theory
		2.1.1 Community of Practice as a Learning Theory
	2.2 Communities of Practice Theory in Service of Instrument Development: A Focus on Identity, Practices, and Belonging
		2.2.1 How a Community of Practice Lens Helped Highlight Important Features of the Mentoring Program
	2.3 Interrogating Roles at the Periphery
		2.3.1 Examining Two Youth Cases from the “Outlier” or “Peripheral Participation” Group
		2.3.2 Broader Implications for the Field/Next Steps
	References
3 The ‘Science Experience’: Using Situated Learning Theory to Connect Science in Everyday Life for Year 9 and Year 10 Students in Regional Australia Through an Outside-the-Classroom Science Program
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Introduction to Literature
		3.2.1 Social Constructivism in Educational Contexts
		3.2.2 Situated Learning and Communities of Practice
		3.2.3 Authentic Learning Experiences in STEM Education
	3.3 Application in the Literature
	3.4 The ‘Science Experience’ Case Study
		3.4.1 Outside-the-Classroom Learning Experiences
		3.4.2 The Science Experience Gladstone
		3.4.3 Science Curriculum
		3.4.4 Data Collection and Analysis
		3.4.5 Findings
	3.5 Importance to Research
		3.5.1 The Future of the Science Experience
		3.5.2 Authentic Learning Experiences as a New Learning Model
		3.5.3 Notions of Learning
	References
Part II Critical Theory
4 Activity Theory in Informal Contexts: Contradictions Across Learning Contexts
	4.1 Introduction
		4.1.1 Activity Systems
		4.1.2 Contradictions
	4.2 Expansive Learning
	4.3 CHAT in Practice
		4.3.1 Case 1: What Are We Supposed to Do Here?
		4.3.2 Case 2: A Tale of Two Shirts
		4.3.3 Case 3: Negotiating Equity Across Activity Systems
		4.3.4 What Do These Three Cases Have in Common; How Do They Work Together?
	4.4 Discussion/Importance to the Field
	References
5 Gender Inclusion/Exclusion in Science Exhibitions: Theoretical Framework and Practical Implications
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Gender and Gendered Contexts
	5.3 Gender in Science Museums
		5.3.1 The Cultural/Societal Dimension
		5.3.2 The Institutional Dimension
		5.3.3 The Interactional Dimension
		5.3.4 The Individual Dimension
	5.4 Summary
	5.5 Discussion
		5.5.1 Conditions and Constraints Outside the Science Museum
		5.5.2 Conditions and Constraints Inside the Science Museum
		5.5.3 Conditions and Constraints in Interactions Between Exhibitions and Visitors
	5.6 Final Words
	References
6 Engaging with the Political in Learning: Possible Futures, Learning and Agency in the Anthropocene
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Application in the Literature
	6.3 Envisioning and Building Concrete Utopias to Promote Student Learning and Agency
		6.3.1 Bicycles on the Move! Changing the Paradigm of City Planning
		6.3.2 Designing Alternative Forms of Food Production
	6.4 Importance to Research
	References
7 Critical Scientific Literacy Approach and Critical Theories in the Learning of Science Outside the Classroom
	7.1 Introduction
		7.1.1 Critical and Post-critical Theories
		7.1.2 A Complement of Critical Theories: Critical Scientific Literacy as an Approach to Tackle the Climate Emergency
	7.2 Critical Theories in Teaching and Learning Outside the Classroom
		7.2.1 Outdoor Science Education: Experiences from a Critical Theory Approach and Vision III of Scientific Literacy (Lorena)
		7.2.2 Analysis of Critical Science Teaching Experiences Outside the Classroom of Teachers Participating in a Continuous Training Program from a Critical Perspective (Corina)
		7.2.3 An Example of Teaching and Learning Science Outside the Classroom from Critical Theories (Gonzalo)
	7.3 Importance to Research
	References
Part III Identity Theory
8 Playing to Become a Science Person: The Application of Play and Identity Theories in Two Out-of-School Settings
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Application in the Literature
		8.2.1 Historical
		8.2.2 Contemporary Applications
	8.3 CSL in Two Contexts Beyond Schooling
		8.3.1 Play and Identity Development Intertwine
	8.4 Importance to Research: The Essential Role of Continual Science Learning in Expanding Possibilities Beyond Schooling
		8.4.1 Learning Science: Making a Choice
		8.4.2 Learning Science: Intergenerational, Trustful, Flexible
		8.4.3 Science Learning Within a Cultural Context; Imitating and Preparing
		8.4.4 Continual Science Learning Intertwines Play and Identity Development Theories as Adaptive Strategies
	8.5 Summary: The Biology of Science Learning Helps to Explain the Theoretical Overlap
	References
9 A Mobile Theory of Learning and Identity in and Through Relations of Dignity: A Research Framing for Research Outside the Classroom
	9.1 Introduction
		9.1.1 Vignette: A Walking Visit of the Botanical Garden
		9.1.2 Interpretation of Vignette
	9.2 A Brief Synopsis of the Current Literature on Learning Outside the Classroom
	9.3 Mobile Theory of Learning and Identity in Action
		9.3.1 Example 1. Navigating Worlds—Family Cooking Afterschool Activity
	9.4 Example 2. Youths’ Learning Pathways
		9.4.1 Case Study 1: Saashi
		9.4.2 Case Study 2: Alexi
	9.5 Importance to Research
	References
10 Application of the Contextual Model of Learning and Situated Identity Model in Informal STEM Learning Research
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 The Contextual Model of Learning
		10.2.1 The Personal Context
		10.2.2 The Sociocultural Context
		10.2.3 The Physical Context
		10.2.4 Other Factors
	10.3 The Situated Identity Model
	10.4 Prior Application of the Models
		10.4.1 Contextual Model of Learning
		10.4.2 Situated Identity Model
	10.5 Why Zoos and Aquariums Matter Study
		10.5.1 Full Visit Cycle
		10.5.2 Theoretical Framing
		10.5.3 Study Design
		10.5.4 Study Findings
		10.5.5 Discussion
	10.6 Importance to Research
	References
11 Leveraging Intersectionality and Positionality in Praxis-Oriented Teacher Learning
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Theories
		11.2.1 Intersectional Identities
		11.2.2 Positionality-Positioning Theory
	11.3 Framework/Conceptual Links
		11.3.1 Persons in Structures of Social Practice
	11.4 Teaching and Learning Context
	11.5 Teaching and Learning Approach
		11.5.1 Positionality Vignette: Susan
		11.5.2 Positionality Vignette: Mary
	11.6 Discussion
	References
12 Identity Construction in Informal Learning Environments: Applying Socio-cultural Situative Theory Through Linguistic Ethnographic Microanalysis
	12.1 Introduction
		12.1.1 Theoretical Framework: Socio-cultural Situative Identity Theory
	12.2 Application of Socio-cultural Identity Theory in Literature on Informal Learning Environments
	12.3 Illustrative Case Study Excerpts: Applying Socio-cultural Identity Theory Through Linguistic Ethnographic Microanalysis
		12.3.1 Case Study 1: The (Re)Construction of Students' Science Identities in School Visits ao a Science Museum
		12.3.2 Case Study 2: Identity Work in Family Everyday Life
		12.3.3 Case Study 3: Science Teachers’ Identity Negotiation Vis-À-Vis Out-of-Classroom Teaching
	12.4 The Affordances of Applying Situative Socio-cultural Identity Theory Through Linguistic Ethnographic Microanalysis
	References
Part IV Sociocultural, Socioscientific, and Social Entrepreneurship
13 Sociocultural Theory: Intergenerational (Family) Sociocultural Dialogic Patterns and Spaces at an Aquarium Stingray Touch Tank
	13.1 Introduction
		13.1.1 Intergenerational Groups
	13.2 Application in the Literature
	13.3 Aquarium Study
		13.3.1 Introduction
		13.3.2 Methodology
		13.3.3 Results
	13.4 Relating the Results to Sociocultural Framework: Sociocultural Dialogic Space and Patterns
	13.5 Implications for Research in Informal Learning Contexts
	13.6 Importance of Sociocultural Theory
	References
14 Socioscientific Issues and the Potential for Fostering Engagement Through Exhibits
	14.1 Introduction
		14.1.1 SSI and Exhibits
	14.2 The Socioscientific Issues Framework
		14.2.1 Design Elements
		14.2.2 Learner Experiences
		14.2.3 Teacher Attributes
		14.2.4 Classroom Environment
		14.2.5 Peripheral Influences
		14.2.6 Adapting the SSI Framework for ISI Exhibit Design
	14.3 Application in the Literature
	14.4 Exploring the SSIF in Aquarium Exhibits
		14.4.1 In-Person Exhibits About Climate Change
		14.4.2 Virtual Exhibits About Climate Change
		14.4.3 Interpretations of a Socioscientific Issue Exhibit
	14.5 Importance to the Research
	References
15 Complementing Informal STEM Education with Social Entrepreneurship
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Learning Theory and Application in Literature
	15.3 Example of Author Use
	15.4 Importance to Research
	15.5 Conclusion
	References
Part V Systems Theory
16 Bringing Barad into Outdoor Learning: A Reflective Case Study Concerning Quadrats and Agential Cuts in Ecology Education
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Application to the Literature
		16.2.1 Scientific Spaces
		16.2.2 Quadrats in Ecology
		16.2.3 Boundary Crossing and Boundary Objects
		16.2.4 Baradian Thinking and the Quadrat
	16.3 Understanding the Use of Quadrats Through Baradian Thinking
		16.3.1 Development of Our Thinking
		16.3.2 The Toothpick Safari Study
	16.4 Importance to Research
	References
17 General Systems Theory and Boundary Crossing: Exploring the Relationship Between Zoo Educators and Elementary Educators
	17.1 Introduction
		17.1.1 Formal and Informal Educator Relationships
		17.1.2 General Systems Theory
		17.1.3 System Concepts
	17.2 Example Study—Zoo
		17.2.1 Literature Review
		17.2.2 Methodology
	17.3 Discussion
	17.4 Applying Systems Theory
	References
Part VI Expeditionary, Place-Based, Variation Theory
18 Connecting the History of Science to the Holocaust Through Expeditionary Learning
	18.1 Expeditionary Learning
	18.2 Description of the Course
	18.3 Course Materials and Analyses
	18.4 Results
	18.5 Conclusions
	Appendix
	References
19 Fostering Bedouin Students’ Sense of Place in the Light of Place-Based Education and Third-Space Theory
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 What is ‘Sense of Place’ and Why Is It Important?
	19.3 The Relationship Between Sense of Place and Place-Based Education
	19.4 The Bedouins and Their Relationship with Place
	19.5 How Do Bedouin Children Understand and Experience Their Environment? Developing Research Tools in the ‘Third Space’
		19.5.1 Stage 1—Creating a Bank of Statements
		19.5.2 Stage 2—Preliminary Testing of the Students’ Understanding of the Statements
		19.5.3 Stage 3—Consultation with Experts
		19.5.4 Stage 4—Revision of Statements Based on the Results of Stages 2 and 3
		19.5.5 Stage 5—Testing the Revised Questionnaire
		19.5.6 Stage 6—Readjustment of Illustrations and Statements
		19.5.7 Stage 7—Adding a Formal ‘Explanations’ Section to the Questionnaire
	19.6 The Hebron Stream Study Unit: An Authentic Place-Based Program Relevant to the Environmental, Social, and Cultural Issues That Concern These Students’ Relationship With Their Place
		19.6.1 Before and After—Assessing the Program’s Influence
	19.7 Discussion
	References
20 Application of Variation Theory to Zoo Education: Case Study of Immersive Habitat Classrooms
	20.1 Introduction
		20.1.1 Variation Theory
		20.1.2 History and Development of Variation Theory
	20.2 Variation Theory of Learning
		20.2.1 Object of Learning
		20.2.2 Critical Aspects and Critical Features
		20.2.3 Perspectives of Objects of Learning
		20.2.4 Differentiation and Discernment
		20.2.5 Patterns of Variation
	20.3 Why is Variation Theory Useful?
		20.3.1 Use for Teachers in General
		20.3.2 Use for Teachers in Out-of-School Settings
	20.4 Application in the Literature
		20.4.1 Preschool Forest Outings
		20.4.2 Variation Theory in Teaching Science and Mathematics
	20.5 Example—Science Learning at Nambaroo Zoo
		20.5.1 Overview of Case Study
		20.5.2 Preliminary Analysis
		20.5.3 Variation Theory Analysis
		20.5.4 Outcome of the Analysis
	20.6 Importance to Research
		20.6.1 Zoo Educator Benefit
		20.6.2 Use of the Theory as a Research Lens
	20.7 Conclusion
	References
Part VII Theory Development
21 Developing Natural History Museum Object-Based Inquiry for Museum’s Group Visitors
	21.1 Introduction
	21.2 Literature Review
		21.2.1 Object-Based Activity Model (OBAM)
		21.2.2 Posner, Strike, Hewson, and Gertzog (PSHG) Conceptual Change Model
		21.2.3 Personal Awareness of Science and Technology (PAST) Model
		21.2.4 Predict-Observe-Explain (POE)
	21.3 Methodology
		21.3.1 Setting
		21.3.2 Case Study 1: The Cephalopod Family
		21.3.3 Transforming Linear Lecture to POE Modular
		21.3.4 Case Study 2: Inquiring About the Ancient Life
	21.4 Discussion
		21.4.1 The POE Strategy Provides a Pattern for Recognizing Visitors’ Thinking and Giving Them Adequate Feedback
		21.4.2 The PSHG and PAST Models Provide a Perspective to Check if the Educational Program Created an Appropriate Situation for Learning
		21.4.3 Object-Centered Learning in Future Museums
	References
22 Merging Three Learning Theories to Understand How Learning Outside the Classroom Institutions Learn Themselves
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 Application in the Literature
		22.2.1 Communities of Practice
		22.2.2 Cultural-Historical Activity Theory (CHAT)
		22.2.3 Organisational Learning
	22.3 The BigPicnic Analytical Framework
		22.3.1 Setting the Scene
		22.3.2 The Big Picnic Analytical Framework
		22.3.3 Analytical Methods
		22.3.4 Examples of Findings
	22.4 Importance to Research
	References
23 “Grilled is Better Than Fried Chicken.”: Exploring a Participant Model for Designing and Evaluating Children’s Museum Health-Related Cooking Classes
	23.1 Introduction
	23.2 Relevant Literature
		23.2.1 Healthy Cooking Classes for Children
		23.2.2 Museum Cooking Programs for Children
		23.2.3 Aims and Significance
	23.3 Conceptual Framework
		23.3.1 Methods
		23.3.2 Setting and Cooking Classes
		23.3.3 Participants
		23.3.4 Data Collection
		23.3.5 Data Analysis
	23.4 Results
		23.4.1 Photo-Elicitation
		23.4.2 Photo-Elicitation Interviews
		23.4.3 Health Promotion Outcome
		23.4.4 Intermediate Health Outcomes
		23.4.5 Health and Social Outcome
	23.5 Limitations
	23.6 Discussion
		23.6.1 Social Interactions
		23.6.2 Participant Model for Health-Related Cooking Classes
		23.6.3 Applying the Participant Model for Health-Related Cooking Classes
	23.7 Conclusions
		23.7.1 Translation to Health Education Practice
	References
24 Adaptation of Constructivist Learning and Teaching Models for Non-formal Science Education Research
	24.1 From the Constructivist Learning Theory to Models of Teaching–Learning-Interaction
		24.1.1 Criteria for Teaching–Learning Models
	24.2 Combination of the Offer-Usage Model and the Model of Design-Based Research (Used in Study No. 1)—And Their Application in the Literature
	24.3 The Model of Educational Reconstruction as a Genuine Subject-Matter Education Model (Used in Studies No. 2 and No. 3)—And Its Application in the Literature
	24.4 Examples of the Application of Science-Education-Research Models to Non-formal Learning Environments
		24.4.1 The Offer-Usage Model in a Study to Investigate the Cognitive and Motivational Dynamics in Out-of-School Student Laboratories (Study No. 1)
		24.4.2 Model of Educational Reconstruction in a Study to Develop an Exhibition on the Physics of Coastal Dynamics and the Exploration of Learner Perspectives (Study No. 2)
		24.4.3 Model of Educational Reconstruction as a Framework to Study Students Learning Through Exhibits of a Science Center (Study No. 3)
	24.5 Importance to Research
	References
25 In Search of an Articulated and Coherent Theoretical Framework to Inform Research and Evaluation of Learning in Science Centers: A Tale of Two Research Challenges
	25.1 Introduction
	25.2 Applications in the Literature
		25.2.1 Constructivism
		25.2.2 Experiential Learning
		25.2.3 Sociocultural and Emotional Theories of Learning
	25.3 Examples of Author Use
		25.3.1 Application 1: Small Science Center Research Project
		25.3.2 Application 2: Large Science Center Research Project
	25.4 Learning Characteristics and Influences on Learning
		25.4.1 Learning Characteristics and Influences on Learning Coding Categories with Sub-categories
		25.4.2 Quick Descriptions of Main Categories of Learning Characteristics and Influences on Learning, with Examples
		25.4.3 Influences on Learning (Affective Aspects, Sociocultural Aspects, and Operational and Mechanical)
		25.4.4 Sample of Literature for Recognizing Behaviors Characteristic of, and Influences on, Learning
	25.5 Importance to Research
	References
Index