How Education Policy Shapes Literacy Instruction: Understanding the Persistent Problems of Policy and Practice

Preface
	References
Contents
Notes on Contributors
List of Figures
List of Tables
Chapter 1: Introduction
	Core and Continued Questions
		What Makes Education a Policy Problem?
		What Makes Reading Instruction a Policy Problem?
		How Do Public Schools Manage Students’ Individual Differences?
	In This Volume
		Retention, Remediation, and Reality (Chaps. 2, 3, and 5)
		Language, Literacy Teaching, Literacy Teachers (Chaps. 4, 6, and 7)
	As You Read On
	References
Chapter 2: Retention in Grade and Third-Grade “Trigger” Laws: History, Politics, and Pitfalls
	The Present Day
		Roots in U.S. Politics
			2000s: Rise of the “Florida Formula”
			2010s to Now: The Spread of a Dubious Policy
		Concurrent Policies
		Politics
			The Growing Influence of State Legislatures
			Punishment vs. Support
	Themes, Foci, and Findings of Research
		Outcome 1: Reading Achievement
		Outcome 2: High School Graduation Rates
		Outcome 3: Social-Emotional
		Outcome 4: Economic
		Problems
			Problem 1: Retention as an Intervention
			Problem 2: Expecting Uniform Development
			Problem 3: Use of Standardized Testing
			Problem 4: Discriminatory Application of Retention Policies
			Problem 5: Retention Is a Distraction
	Evolution of Policy Streams over Time
		Retention in Grade
		Accountability Measures
			1970s–1980s: Minimum-Competency Movement
			1990s–2000s: Standards-Based Reforms
		Third Grade as a “Line in the Sand”
	Looking to the Future
		Disruption Is Possible
	Articles and Artifacts for Further Reading
	Discussion Questions
	Additional Suggestions for Further Reading and Viewing
	References
Chapter 3: Remedial Reading Programs: Identification, Instruction, and Impacts of a Separate System for Learning
	Introduction
	Reflecting on the Past: Remedial Reading Since the 1960s
		The 1960s and 1970s
		The 1980s and 1990s
		2000s and 2010s
	Looking to the Future: Re-mediating Reading in the 2020s and Beyond
	Representative Articles and Artifacts
	Discussion Questions
	References
Chapter 4: Early Reading Instruction: Politics and Myths About Materials and Methods
	Early Literacy Policies Across Time
		Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965): Funding Reading Education to Fight Poverty
		Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1981 and 1994): Educational Excellence and Standards-Based Reform
			A Nation at Risk (1983)
			Becoming a Nation of Readers (1985)
			Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children (1998)
			National Reading Panel Report (2000) and Put Reading First (2001)
		No Child Left Behind (2001): Tightened Federal Accountability in Teaching and Assessment
		Race to the Top (2009) and Common Core (2010): Teacher Effectiveness and Challenging Texts
		Every Student Succeeds Act (2015): Comprehensive Literacy Instruction and Prescriptive Reforms
	Looking into the Future
	Discussion Questions
	References
		Further Reading
Chapter 5: Cumulative Disadvantage: Differential Experiences of Students with Reading Difficulties
	Introduction
	Historical Evidence
		1960s–1980s
		1970s–1980s
		1990s–2020s
	Conclusion
	Discussion Questions
	References
		Further Reading
Chapter 6: A Language for Literacy Learning: Language Policy, Bi/Multilingual Students, and Literacy Instruction
	Introduction
	Bilingual Education in the United States: A Brief History
		Bilingual Education Act: The Early Years
			The Genesis of the Bilingual Education Act: 1968
			Literacy Research and Practice: Oracy and the Role of Culturally Relevant Texts
			Expanding the Bilingual Education Act: 1974 and 1978
			Literacy Research and Practice: Reading in English Takes Center Stage
		The Middle Years: Moving Toward Measurement
			Reauthorizing the BEA in 1984, 1988, and 1994
			Literacy Research and Practice in the 1980s and 1990s: Fears over Failing Schools Affect Foci
			NCLB 2001: New Demands for Language and Literacy Development
			Literacy Research and Practice: Assessment, Accountability, and English-Only State Policies
		Educating Bi/Multilingual Students Under ESSA
		2015–Present
			Literacy Research and Practice: Revisiting the Role of Culture and Language
	Conclusion
	Discussion Questions
	References
		Further Reading
Chapter 7: How Literacy Policy Shapes Understandings of Teacher Quality: Coaching, Evaluation, and Measures of Teacher Effectiveness
	Introduction
		Early Teacher Evaluation and Reading Instruction
		New-Generation Teacher Evaluation
		Teacher Quality Goes Back to the Future
	Discussion Questions
	References
		Further Reading
Chapter 8: Conclusion: Influence and Evidence in Reading-Related Policy
	What Informs Reading Policy?
	The Importance of Policy Evidence
		Accountability for Policy Outcomes
	Expanding Conceptualizations of Reading
	Being a Nation of Readers
	A Wider Frame of Reference
	References
Afterword
Index