How Children Develop

Cover Page
......Page 1
Half-Title Page
......Page 3
Title-Page
......Page 5
Copyright Page
......Page 6
About the Authors......Page 7
Brief Contents......Page 9
Classic Themes......Page 21
Getting Right to the Point......Page 22
Features......Page 23
New! Video Tool Kit for Human Development......Page 24
Observation Videos......Page 25
Acknowledgments......Page 26
Contents......Page 10
Chapter 1: An Introduction to Child Development
......Page 31
Raising Children......Page 33
Choosing Social Policies......Page 34
Understanding Human Nature......Page 36
Early Philosophers’ Views of Children’s Development......Page 38
Social Reform Movements......Page 39
The Emergence of Child Development as a Discipline......Page 40
1: Nature and Nurture: How Do Nature and Nurture Together Shape Development?......Page 41
2: The Active Child: How Do Children Shape Their Own Development?......Page 42
3: Continuity/Discontinuity: In What Ways Is Development Continuous, and in What Ways Is It Discontinuous?
......Page 44
4: Mechanisms of Developmental Change: How Does Change Occur?......Page 47
5: The Sociocultural Context: How Does the Sociocultural Context Influence Development?......Page 49
6: Individual Differences: How Do Children Become So Different from One Another?......Page 51
7: Research and Children’s Welfare: How Can Research Promote Children’s Well-Being?
......Page 53
Methods for Studying Child Development......Page 54
The Scientific Method......Page 55
Contexts for Gathering Data About Children......Page 57
Correlation and Causation......Page 59
Designs for Examining Development......Page 64
Ethical Issues in Child-Development Research......Page 66
Chapter Summary......Page 68
Chapter 2: Prenatal Development and the Newborn Period......Page 71
Box 2.1: A Closer Look: Beng Beginnings......Page 73
Conception......Page 74
Box 2.2: Individual Differences: The First—and Last—SexDifferences......Page 76
Developmental Processes......Page 77
Box 2.3: A Closer Look: Phylogenetic Continuity......Page 78
Early Development......Page 79
An Illustrated Summary of Prenatal Development......Page 80
Fetal Behavior......Page 83
Fetal Experience......Page 85
Fetal Learning......Page 86
Hazards to Prenatal Development......Page 88
Box 2.4: Applications: Face Up to Wake Up......Page 93
The Birth Experience......Page 97
Diversity of Childbirth Practices......Page 98
State of Arousal......Page 100
Negative Outcomes at Birth......Page 104
Box 2.5: Applications: Parenting a Low-Birth-Weight Baby......Page 106
Review......Page 109
Chapter Summary......Page 110
Chapter 3: Biology and Behavior......Page 113
Nature and Nurture......Page 115
Genetic and Environmental Forces......Page 116
Box 3.1: Applications: Genetic Transmission of Diseases and Disorders
......Page 122
Behavior Genetics......Page 125
Box 3.2: Individual Differences: Identical Twins Reared Apar......Page 128
Review......Page 131
Structures of the Brain......Page 132
Developmental Processes......Page 134
Box 3.3: A Closer Look: Mapping the Mind......Page 135
The Importance of Experience......Page 140
Brain Damage and Recovery......Page 144
Growth and Maturation......Page 145
Nutritional Behavior......Page 147
Box 3.4: Applications: Eat Your Peas, Please......Page 149
Chapter Summary......Page 153
Chapter 4: Theories of Cognitive Development......Page 157
View of Children’s Nature......Page 160
Central Developmental Issues......Page 161
The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to Age 2 Years)......Page 163
The Preoperational Stage (Ages 2 to 7)......Page 166
The Formal Operations Stage (Age 12 and Beyond)......Page 169
Piaget’s Legacy......Page 170
Box 4.1: Applications: Educational Applications of Piaget’s Theory......Page 171
Information-Processing Theories......Page 173
Central Developmental Issues......Page 175
Box 4.2: Applications: Educational Applications of Information-Processing Theories......Page 182
View of Children’s Nature......Page 184
Central Developmental Issues......Page 186
Sociocultural Theories .......Page 188
View of Children’s Nature......Page 189
Central Developmental Issues......Page 191
Dynamic-Systems Theories......Page 194
View of Children’s Nature......Page 196
Central Development Issues......Page 198
Box 4.5: Applications: Educational Applications of Dynamic-Systems Theories......Page 200
Chapter Summary......Page 201
Chapter 5: Seeing, Thinking, and Doing in Infancy......Page 205
Perception......Page 207
Vision......Page 208
Box 5.1: A Closer Look: Beauty and the Baby......Page 210
Auditory Perception......Page 215
Box 5.2: A Closer Look: Picture Perception......Page 216
Taste and Smell......Page 217
Intermodal Perception......Page 218
Review......Page 219
Reflexes......Page 220
Motor Milestones......Page 221
Current Views of Motor Development......Page 222
The Expanding World of the Infant......Page 224
Box 5.4: Applications: A Recent Secular Change in Motor Development......Page 226
Box 5.5: A Closer Look: “Gangway—I’m Coming Down”......Page 227
Learning......Page 229
Perceptual Learning......Page 230
Classical Conditioning......Page 232
Instrumental Conditioning......Page 233
Observational Learning/Imitation......Page 234
Cognition......Page 235
Object Knowledge......Page 236
Physical Knowledge......Page 237
Social Knowledge......Page 238
Review......Page 241
Chapter Summary......Page 242
Chapter 6: Development of Language and Symbol Use......Page 245
The Components of Language......Page 247
What Is Required for Language?......Page 249
Box 6.1: Applications: Two Languages Are Better Than One......Page 254
The Process of Language Acquisition......Page 255
Box 6.2: Individual Differences: Variability in Language Development......Page 264
Current Theoretical Issues in Language Development......Page 276
Box 6.3: A Closer Look: “I Just Can’t Talk Without My Hands”:......Page 278
Review......Page 281
Using Symbols as Information......Page 282
Drawing......Page 283
Review......Page 285
Chapter Summary......Page 286
Chapter 7: Conceptual Development......Page 289
Understanding Who or What......Page 291
Dividing Objects into Categories......Page 292
Knowledge of Other People and Oneself......Page 296
Box 7.1: Individual Differences: Children with Autism......Page 300
Box 7.2: Individual Differences: Imaginary Companions......Page 303
Review......Page 308
Space......Page 309
Time......Page 313
Causality......Page 315
Box 7.3: A Closer Look: Magical Thinking and Fantasy......Page 318
Review......Page 323
Chapter Summary......Page 324
Chapter 8: Intelligence and Academic Achievement......Page 327
Intelligence as a Few Basic Abilities......Page 329
A Proposed Resolution......Page 330
Measuring Intelligence......Page 331
The Contents of Intelligence Tests......Page 332
The Intelligence Quotient (IQ)......Page 334
Box 8.1: Individual Differences: Gifted Children......Page 336
IQ Scores as Predictors of Important Outcomes......Page 337
Genes, Environment, and the Development of Intelligence......Page 338
Qualities of the Child......Page 339
Influence of the Immediate Environment......Page 340
Influence of Society......Page 343
Box 8.2: Applications: A Highly Successful Early Intervention:The Carolina Abecedarian Project......Page 348
Alternative Perspectives on Intelligence......Page 350
Review......Page 352
Reading......Page 353
Box 8.3: Individual Differences: Dyslexia......Page 357
Writing......Page 359
Mathematics......Page 362
Box 8.4: Applications: Mathematical Disabilities......Page 364
Review......Page 366
Chapter Summary......Page 367
Chapter 9: Theories of Social Development......Page 371
View of Children’s Nature......Page 373
Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development......Page 374
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development......Page 377
Current Perspectives......Page 379
Learning Theories......Page 380
Watson’s Behaviorism......Page 381
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning......Page 382
Box 9.1: A Closer Look: Bandura and Bobo......Page 384
Review......Page 387
Selman’s Stage Theory of Role Taking......Page 388
Dodge’s Information-Processing Theory of Social Problem Solving......Page 389
Dweck’s Theory of Self-Attributions and Achievement Motivation......Page 390
Current Perspectives......Page 391
Central Developmental Issues......Page 392
Ethological and Evolutionary Theories......Page 393
The Bioecological Model......Page 396
Box 9.2: Individual Differences: Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder......Page 400
Box 9.3: Applications: Preventing Child Maltreatment......Page 402
Current Perspectives......Page 407
Chapter Summary......Page 408
Chapter 10: Emotional Development......Page 411
The Development of Emotions in Childhood......Page 413
Theories on the Nature and Emergence of Emotion......Page 414
The Emergence of Emotion in the Early Years and Childhood......Page 415
Box 10.1: Individual Differences: Gender Differences in Adolescent Depression......Page 423
Review......Page 425
The Development of Emotional Regulation......Page 426
The Relation of Emotional Regulation to Social Competence and Adjustment......Page 428
Individual Differences in Emotion and Its Regulation......Page 429
Temperament......Page 430
Box 10.2: A Closer Look: Measurement of Temperament......Page 434
Children’s Emotional Development in the Family......Page 437
Parental Socialization of Children’s Emotional Responding......Page 438
Culture and Children’s Emotional Development......Page 441
Children’s Understanding of Emotion......Page 443
Identifying the Emotions of Others......Page 444
Understanding the Causes and Dynamics of Emotion......Page 445
Children’s Understanding of Real and False Emotions......Page 446
Chapter Summary
......Page 449
Chapter 11: Attachment to Others and Development of Self......Page 453
The Caregiver–Child Attachment Relationship......Page 455
Attachment Theory......Page 456
Measurement of Attachment Security in Infancy......Page 457
Box 11.1: Individual Differences: Parental Attachment Status......Page 460
Cultural Variations in Attachment......Page 461
Factors Associated with the Security of Children’s Attachment......Page 462
Does Security of Attachment Have Long-Term Effects?......Page 464
Conceptions of the Self......Page 466
The Development of Conceptions of Self......Page 467
Identity in Adolescence......Page 473
Ethnic Identity......Page 476
Ethnic Identity in Childhood......Page 477
Ethnic Identity in Adolescence......Page 478
Sexual Identity or Orientation......Page 479
Sexual Identity in Sexual-Minority Youth......Page 480
Sources of Self-Esteem......Page 484
Self-Esteem in Minority Children......Page 487
Culture and Self-Esteem......Page 489
Chapter Summary......Page 490
Chapter 12: The Family......Page 493
Family Dynamics......Page 496
Review......Page 498
Parenting Styles and Practices......Page 499
The Child as an Influence on Parenting......Page 503
Socioeconomic Influences on Parenting......Page 504
Box 12.2 A Closer Look: Homelessness......Page 507
Differences in Mothers’ and Fathers’ Interactions with Their Children......Page 508
Sibling Relationships......Page 509
Review......Page 510
Changes in Families in the United States......Page 511
Box 12.3: Individual Differences: Adolescents as Parents......Page 512
Older Parents......Page 513
Divorce......Page 514
Stepparenting......Page 519
Lesbian and Gay Parents......Page 521
Maternal Employment and Child Care......Page 522
The Effects of Maternal Employment......Page 523
The Effects of Child Care......Page 524
Review......Page 529
Chapter Summary......Page 530
Chapter 13: Peer Relationships......Page 533
What Is Special About Peer Relationships?......Page 536
Friendships......Page 537
Early Peer Interactions and Friendships......Page 538
Developmental Changes in Friendship......Page 539
The Functions of Friendships......Page 541
Effects of Friendships on Psychological Functioning and Behavior over Time......Page 544
Children’s Choice of Friends......Page 546
Box 13.1: Individual Differences: Culture and Children’s Peer Experience......Page 547
Peers in Groups......Page 548
Cliques and Social Networks in Middle Childhood and Early Adolescence......Page 549
Cliques and Social Networks in Adolescence......Page 550
Negative Influences of Cliques and Social Networks......Page 551
Box 13.2 A Closer Look: Romantic Relationships with Peers......Page 552
Status in the Peer Group......Page 553
Characteristics Associated with Sociometric Status......Page 554
Box 13.3: Applications: Fostering Children’s Peer Acceptance......Page 558
Cross-Cultural Similarities and Differences in Factors Related to Peer Status......Page 559
Peer Status as a Predictor of Risk......Page 560
Review......Page 563
Relations Between Attachment and Competence with Peers......Page 564
Quality of Ongoing Parent–Child Interactions and Peer Relationships......Page 565
Gatekeeping, Coaching, and Modeling by Parents......Page 566
Family Stress and Children’s Social Competence......Page 567
Review......Page 568
Chapter Summary......Page 569
Chapter 14: Moral Development......Page 573
Moral Judgment......Page 575
Piaget’s Theory of Moral Judgment......Page 576
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Judgment......Page 578
Prosocial Moral Judgment......Page 582
Domains of Social Judgment......Page 584
The Early Development of Conscience......Page 586
Factors Affecting the Development of Conscience......Page 587
Prosocial Behavior......Page 588
The Development of Prosocial Behavior......Page 589
The Origins of Individual Differences in Prosocial Behavior......Page 592
Box 14.1: A Closer Look: Cultural Contributions to Children’s Prosocialand Antisocial Tendencie......Page 594
Box 14.2: Applications: School-Based Interventions for PromotingProsocial Behavior......Page 596
The Development of Aggression and Other Antisocial Behaviors......Page 597
Consistency of Aggressive and Antisocial Behavior......Page 598
Box 14.3: A Closer Look: Oppositional Defiant Disorder andConduct Disorder
......Page 600
Characteristics of Aggressive-Antisocial Children and Adolescents......Page 601
The Origins of Aggression......Page 602
Box 14.4: Applications: The Fast Track Intervention......Page 608
Review......Page 609
Chapter Summary
......Page 610
Chapter 15: Gender Development
......Page 613
Theoretical Perspectives on Gender Development......Page 615
Biological Influences......Page 616
Box 15: 1 A Closer Look: Gender Identity: More than Socialization?......Page 618
Cognitive and Motivational Influences......Page 619
Box 15.2: A Closer Look: Gender Socialization at Home......Page 624
Box 15.3: Applications: Where Are SpongeSally SquarePants and Curious Jane?......Page 625
Cultural Influences......Page 626
Milestones in Gender Development......Page 627
Preschool Years......Page 628
Middle Childhood......Page 630
Adolescence......Page 631
Gender Flexibility and Asymmetry......Page 633
Gender Comparisons......Page 634
Physical Growth: Infancy through Adolescence......Page 635
Cognitive Abilities and Academic Achievement......Page 637
Personality and Social Behavior......Page 643
Chapter Summary......Page 649
Chapter 16: Conclusions......Page 653
Nature and Nurture Begin Interacting Before Birth......Page 654
Timing Matters......Page 655
Nature Does Not Reveal Itself All at Once......Page 656
Everything Influences Everything......Page 657
Self-Initiated Activity......Page 658
Active Interpretation of Experience......Page 659
Eliciting Reactions from Other People......Page 660
Continuity/Discontinuity of Individual Differences......Page 661
Continuity/Discontinuity of Overall Development:The Question of Stages......Page 662
Theme 4: Mechanisms of Developmental Change......Page 664
Biological Change Mechanisms......Page 665
Behavioral Change Mechanisms......Page 666
Cognitive Change Mechanisms......Page 668
Change Mechanisms Work Together......Page 669
Growing Up in Societies with Different Values......Page 670
Growing Up in Different Times and Places......Page 671
Growing Up in Different Circumstances Within a Society......Page 672
Theme 6: Individual Differences......Page 673
Stability over Time......Page 674
Determinants of Individual Differences......Page 675
Implications for Parenting......Page 676
Implications for Education......Page 678
Implications for Helping Children at Risk......Page 679
Improving Social Policy......Page 681
Glossary......Page 685
References......Page 695
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