Highway Engineering

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
About the Companion Website
Chapter 1 The Transportation Planning Process
	1.1 Why Are Highways So Important?
	1.2 The Administration of Highway Schemes
	1.3 Sources of Funding
	1.4 Highway Planning
		1.4.1 Introduction
		1.4.2 Travel Data
		1.4.3 Highway Planning Strategies
			1.4.3.1 Land-Use Transportation Approach
			1.4.3.2 The Demand Management Approach
			1.4.3.3 The Car-Centred Approach
			1.4.3.4 The Public Transport-Centred Approach
		1.4.4 Transportation Studies
			1.4.4.1 Transportation Survey
			1.4.4.2 Production and Use of Mathematical Models
	1.5 The Decision-Making Process in Highway and Transport Planning
		1.5.1 Introduction
		1.5.2 Economic Assessment
		1.5.3 Environmental Assessment
		1.5.4 Public Consultation
	1.6 Summary
	References
Chapter 2 Forecasting Future Traffic Flows
	2.1 Basic Principles of Traffic Demand Analysis
	2.2 Demand Modelling
	2.3 Land-Use Models
	2.4 Trip Generation
		2.4.1 TRICS® Database
	2.5 Trip Distribution
		2.5.1 Introduction
		2.5.2 The Gravity Model
		2.5.3 Growth Factor Models
		2.5.4 The Furness Method
	2.6 Modal Split
	2.7 Traffic Assignment
	2.8 A Full Example of the Four-Stage Transportation Modelling Process
		2.8.1 Trip Production
		2.8.2 Trip Distribution
		2.8.3 Modal Split
		2.8.4 Trip Assignment
	2.9  'Decide and Provide' Versus 'Predict and Provide'
	2.10 Concluding Comments
	Additional Problems
	References
Chapter 3 Scheme Appraisal for Highway Projects
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Economic Appraisal of Highway Schemes
	3.3 CBA
		3.3.1 Introduction
		3.3.2 Identifying the Main Project Options
		3.3.3 Identifying all Relevant Costs and Benefits
			3.3.3.1 Reductions in VOCs
			3.3.3.2 Savings in Time
			3.3.3.3 Reduction in the Frequency of Accidents
		3.3.4 Economic Life, Residual Value, and the Discount Rate
		3.3.5 Use of Economic Indicators to Assess Basic Economic Viability
		3.3.6 Highway CBA Worked Example
			3.3.6.1 Introduction
			3.3.6.2 Computation of Discounted Benefits and Costs
			3.3.6.3 NPV
			3.3.6.4 Benefit-Cost Ratio
			3.3.6.5 IRR
			3.3.6.6 Summary
		3.3.7 COBA
		3.3.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of CBA
	3.4 Payback Analysis
	3.5 Environmental Appraisal of Highway Schemes
	3.6 The New Approach to Appraisal
		3.6.1 Environment
			3.6.1.1 Noise
			3.6.1.2 Local Air Quality
			3.6.1.3 Landscape
			3.6.1.4 Biodiversity
			3.6.1.5 Heritage
			3.6.1.6 Water
			3.6.1.7 Safety
			3.6.1.8 Economy
			3.6.1.9 Journey Times and VOCs
			3.6.1.10 Costs
			3.6.1.11 Reliability
			3.6.1.12 Regeneration
			3.6.1.13 Accessibility
			3.6.1.14 Pedestrians, Cyclists, and Equestrians
			3.6.1.15 Access to Public Transport
			3.6.1.16 Community Severance
			3.6.1.17 Integration
	3.7 NATA Refresh
		3.7.1 Changes to the AST
		3.7.2 Enhanced Presentation of Monetary Impacts
		3.7.3 More Detailed Relationship Between Benefit-Cost Ratio and Value for Money
	3.8 Transport Analysis Guidance: The Transport Appraisal Process
	3.9 Project Management Guidelines
	3.10 Common Appraisal Framework for Transport Projects and Programmes
	3.11 Summary
	References
Chapter 4 Basic Elements of Highway Traffic Analysis
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Surveying Road Traffic
		4.2.1 Introduction
		4.2.2 Vehicle Surveys
			4.2.2.1 Introduction
			4.2.2.2 Manual Counts
			4.2.2.3 Automatic Counts
		4.2.3 Speed Surveys
		4.2.4 Delay/Queuing Surveys
		4.2.5 Area-Wide Surveys
			4.2.5.1 Introduction
			4.2.5.2 Roadside Interview Surveys
			4.2.5.3 Self-Completion Forms
			4.2.5.4 Registration Plate Surveys
	4.3 Journey Speed and Travel Time Surveys
		4.3.1 Introduction
		4.3.2 The Moving Observer Method
	4.4 Speed, Flow, and Density of a Stream of Traffic
		4.4.1 Speed–Density Relationship
		4.4.2 Flow–Density Relationship
		4.4.3 Speed–Flow Relationship
	4.5 Headway Distributions in Highway Traffic Flow
		4.5.1 Introduction
		4.5.2 Negative Exponential Headway Distribution
		4.5.3 Limitations of the Poisson System for Modelling Headway
	4.6 Queuing Analysis
		4.6.1 Introduction
		4.6.2 The D/D/1 Queuing Model
		4.6.3 The M/D/1 Queuing Model
		4.6.4 The M/M/1 Queuing Model
		4.6.5 The M/M/N Queuing Model
	Additional Problems
	References
Chapter 5 Determining the Capacity of a Highway
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 The 'Level of Service' Approach Using the Transportation Research Board
		5.2.1 Introduction
		5.2.2 Some Definitions
		5.2.3 Maximum Service Flow Rates for Multilane Highways
		5.2.4 Maximum Service Flow Rates for Two-Lane Highways
		5.2.5 Sizing a Road Using the Highway Capacity Manual Approach
	5.3 The 2010 Highway Capacity Manual–Analysis of Capacity and Level of Service for Multi-Lane and Two-Lane Highways
		5.3.1 Introduction
		5.3.2 Capacity and Level of Service of Multilane Highways (2010 Highway Capacity Manual)
			5.3.2.1 Flow Characteristics Under Base Conditions
			5.3.2.2 Capacity of Multilane Highway Segments
			5.3.2.3 Level of Service (LOS) for Multilane Highway Segments
			5.3.2.4 Required Data for the LOS Computation
			5.3.2.5 Computing LOS for a Multilane Highway
		5.3.3 Capacity and Level of Service of Two-Lane Highways
			5.3.3.1 Flow Characteristics Under Base Conditions
			5.3.3.2 Capacity and Level of Service
			5.3.3.3 Required Input Data and Default Values
			5.3.3.4 Demand Volumes and Flow Rates
			5.3.3.5 Computing LOS and Capacity for a Two-Lane Highway
			5.3.3.6 Determining Level of Service for Class 1 Two-Lane Highways
			5.3.3.7 Determining the Level of Service for Class 2 Two-Lane Highways
			5.3.3.8 Determining the Level of service for Class 3 Two-Lane Highways
	5.4 The 2016 Highway Capacity Manual–Analysis of Capacity and Level of Service for Multi-Lane Highways
		5.4.1 Introduction
		5.4.2 Capacity and Level of Service of Multilane Highways (2016 Highway Capacity Manual)
			5.4.2.1 Speed Versus Flow
			5.4.2.2 Baseline Conditions and Capacity
			5.4.2.3 Determining Free-Flow Speed
			5.4.2.4 Determination of Incident Flow Rate
			5.4.2.5 Calculation of Density and Determination of Level of Service
	5.5 The UK Approach for Rural Roads
		5.5.1 Introduction
		5.5.2 Estimation of AADT for a Rural Road in Its Year of Opening
	5.6 The UK Approach to Urban Roads
		5.6.1 Introduction
		5.6.2 Forecast Flows on Urban Roads
	5.7 Expansion of 12- and 16-Hour Traffic Counts into AADT Flows
	5.8 Concluding Comments
	Additional Problems
	References
Chapter 6 The Design of Highway Intersections
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Deriving DRFs from Baseline Traffic Figures
		6.2.1 Existing Junctions
		6.2.2 New Junctions
		6.2.3 Short-Term Variations in Flow
		6.2.4 Conversion of AADT to Highest Hourly Flows
	6.3 Major/Minor Priority Intersections
		6.3.1 Introduction
		6.3.2  .Equations for Determining Capacities and Delays
		6.3.3 Geometric Layout Details
			6.3.3.1 Horizontal Alignment
			6.3.3.2 Vertical Alignment
			6.3.3.3 Visibility
			6.3.3.4 Dedicated Lane on the Major Road for Right-Turning Vehicles
	6.4 Roundabout Intersections
		6.4.1 Introduction
		6.4.2 Types of a Roundabout
			6.4.2.1 Mini-Roundabout
			6.4.2.2 Normal Roundabout
			6.4.2.3 Double Roundabout
			6.4.2.4 Other Forms
		6.4.3 Traffic Capacity at Roundabouts
			6.4.3.1 DRF
		6.4.4 Geometric Details
			6.4.4.1 Entry Width
			6.4.4.2 Entry Angle
			6.4.4.3 Entry Radius
			6.4.4.4 Entry Deflection/Entry Path Radius
			6.4.4.5 ICD
			6.4.4.6 Circulatory Carriageway
			6.4.4.7 Main Central Island
	6.5 Basics of Traffic Signal Control: Optimisation and Delays
		6.5.1 Introduction
		6.5.2 Phasing at a Signalised Intersection
		6.5.3 Saturation Flow
		6.5.4 Effective Green Time
		6.5.5 Optimum Cycle Time
		6.5.6 Average Vehicle Delays at the Approach to a Signalised Intersection
		6.5.7 Average Queue Lengths at the Approach to a Signalised Intersection
		6.5.8 Signal Linkage
	6.6 Concluding Remarks
	Additional Problems
	References
Chapter 7 Geometric Alignment and Design
	7.1 Basic Physical Elements of a Highway
		7.1.1 Main Carriageway
		7.1.2 Central Reservation
		7.1.3 Hard Shoulders/Hard Strips/Verges
	7.2 Design Speed and Stopping and Overtaking Sight Distances
		7.2.1 Introduction
		7.2.2 Urban Roads
		7.2.3 Rural Roads
			7.2.3.1 Statutory Constraint
			7.2.3.2 Layout Constraint
			7.2.3.3 Alignment Constraint
			7.2.3.4 New/Upgraded Rural Roads
	7.3 Geometric Parameters Dependent on Design Speed
	7.4 Sight Distances
		7.4.1 Introduction
		7.4.2 Stopping Sight Distance
		7.4.3 Overtaking Sight Distance
	7.5 Horizontal Alignment
		7.5.1 General
		7.5.2 Deriving the Minimum Radius Equation
		7.5.3 Horizontal Curves and Sight Distances
			7.5.3.1 Alternative Method for Computing Ms
		7.5.4 Transitions
			7.5.4.1 Shift
	7.6 Vertical Alignment
		7.6.1 General
		7.6.2 K Values
		7.6.3 Visibility and Comfort Criteria
		7.6.4 Parabolic Formula
		7.6.5 Crossfalls
		7.6.6 Vertical Crest Curve Design and Sight Distance Requirements
			7.6.6.1 Derivation of Crest Curve Formulae
		7.6.7 Vertical Sag Curve Design and Sight Distance Requirements
			7.6.7.1 Driver Comfort
			7.6.7.2 Clearance from Structures
			7.6.7.3 Sag Curves in Night-Time Conditions
	Additional Problems
	References
Chapter 8 Highway Pavement Materials
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Pavement Components: Terminology
	8.3 Soils at Subformation Level
	8.4 Materials in Foundations
	8.5 Materials in Flexible Pavements
		8.5.1 Bitumen
		8.5.2 Asphalt Concrete .(Coated Macadams)
		8.5.3 Hot Rolled Asphalt
		8.5.4 Aggregates
		8.5.5 Designation of Asphalt Materials Used in Flexible Pavements
	8.6 Concrete in Rigid Pavements
	8.7 Surfacing Materials
		8.7.1 Surface Dressing and Modified Binders
			8.7.1.1 Cutback Bitumen
			8.7.1.2 Bituminous Emulsions
			8.7.1.3 Chippings
	8.8 Stiffness Modulus
	8.9 Measurement and Testing of Material and Pavement Properties
		8.9.1 CBR Test
		8.9.2 Determination of CBR Using Plasticity Index
			8.9.2.1 Liquid Limit
			8.9.2.2 Plastic Limit
			8.9.2.3 Plasticity Index
			8.9.2.4 Using IP and Soil Type to Derive CBR
		8.9.3 Using CBR to Estimate Stiffness Modulus
		8.9.4 Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD)
		8.9.5 Light Weight Deflectometer (LWD)
		8.9.6 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP)
		8.9.7 Penetration Test for Bitumen
		8.9.8 Softening Point of Bitumen
		8.9.9 Polished Stone Value (PSV)
		8.9.10 Aggregate Abrasion Value (AAV)
		8.9.11 Patch Test
	Additional Problems
	References
	Design Manual for Roads and Bridges
	Standards
	Other Government Publications
	Other References
Chapter 9 Design and Construction of Highway Pavements
	9.1 Introduction and Design Approach
	9.2 Sustainability and Good Road Design
	9.3 Whole-Life Cost Analysis
	9.4 Traffic Loading
	9.5 Foundation Design
		9.5.1 Introduction
		9.5.2 Restricted Foundation Design Method
		9.5.3 Performance Design Method
			9.5.3.1 Design Charts for Foundation Layer Thickness: Performance Design
			9.5.3.2 Testing Foundation Surface Modulus on Demonstration Area and During Construction
		9.5.4 Drainage and Frost
	9.6 Pavement Design
		9.6.1 Design of Flexible Pavements
		9.6.2 Design of Rigid Pavements
			9.6.2.1 Continuously Reinforced Concrete
			9.6.2.2 Roller Compacted Concrete
			9.6.2.3 Jointed Concrete Pavements
	9.7 Construction of Flexible Pavements
		9.7.1 Construction of Bituminous Road Surfacings
			9.7.1.1 Transporting and Placing
			9.7.1.2 Compaction of the Bituminous Mix
			9.7.1.3 Application of Coated Chippings to Smooth Surfacings
	9.8 Construction of Rigid Pavements
		9.8.1 Concrete Slab and Joint Details
			9.8.1.1 Joints in Concrete Pavements
		9.8.2 Reinforcement
	Additional Problems
	References
	Design Manual for Roads and Bridges
	Standards
	Other Government Publications
	Other References
Chapter 10 Pavement Maintenance
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Pavement Deterioration
	10.3 Compiling Information on the Pavement's Condition
		10.3.1 Introduction
		10.3.2 Traffic-Speed Surveys of Surface and Structural Condition
		10.3.3 Traffic-Speed Surveys of Skidding Resistance
			10.3.3.1 Skidding Resistance
			10.3.3.2 Measurement of Skidding Resistance
		10.3.4 Visual Condition Surveys
		10.3.5 Cores
		10.3.6 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
		10.3.7 Deflectograph
		10.3.8 Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR)
		10.3.9 Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD)
		10.3.10 Other Investigation Techniques
	10.4 Forms of Maintenance
		10.4.1 Flexible Pavements
		10.4.2 Rigid Pavements
	References
Chapter 11 The Highway Engineer and the Development Process
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Transport Assessments
		11.2.1 Introduction
		11.2.2 Identifying the Need for an Assessment
		11.2.3 Preparing a TA
			11.2.3.1 Description of On-Site Existing Baseline Conditions
			11.2.3.2 Definition of the Proposed Development
			11.2.3.3 Setting the Assessment Years for Which Capacity Analyses Are Carried Out
			11.2.3.4 Setting the Analysis Periods for Which Capacity Analyses Are Carried Out
			11.2.3.5 Estimation of Trips Generated by the Proposal
		11.2.4 Final Comment
	11.3 Travel Plans
		11.3.1 Introduction
		11.3.2 Thresholds
		11.3.3 When Is a Travel Plan Required?
		11.3.4 What Information Should Be Included Within a Travel Plan?
			11.3.4.1 Appointment of a Travel Plan Coordinator
			11.3.4.2 Initial Monitoring Process
			11.3.4.3 Setting Targets for Modal Split
			11.3.4.4 Monitoring How Things Have Changed
		11.3.5 Mobility Management Plans in Ireland
	11.4 Road Safety Audits
		11.4.1 Principles Underlying the Road Safety Audit Process
		11.4.2 Definition of Road Safety Audit
		11.4.3 Stages Within Road Safety Audits
		11.4.4 Road Safety Audit Response Report
		11.4.5 Checklists for Use Within the RSA Process
		11.4.6 Risk Analysis
		11.4.7 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 12 Defining Sustainability in Transportation Engineering
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Social Sustainability
	12.3 Environmental Sustainability
	12.4 Economic Sustainability
	12.5 The Four Pillars of Sustainable Transport Planning
		12.5.1 Put Appropriate Governance in Place
		12.5.2 Provide Efficient Long-Term Finance
		12.5.3 Make Strategic Investments in Major Infrastructure
		12.5.4 Support Investments Through Local Design
		12.5.5 Concluding Comments
	12.6 How Will Urban Areas Adapt to the Need for Increased Sustainability?
	12.7 The Role of the Street in Sustainable Transport Planning
		12.7.1 Street Classification System
		12.7.2 Designing an Individual Street
			12.7.2.1 Introduction
			12.7.2.2 A Rational Approach to Speed in Urban Areas
		12.7.3 The Pedestrian Environment
			12.7.3.1 General Design Principles of Footpaths
		12.7.4 Design for Cycling
			12.7.4.1 Cycling Design Criteria
			12.7.4.2 Design Guidelines
		12.7.5 Carriageway Widths on Urban Roads and Streets
		12.7.6 Surfaces
		12.7.7 Junction Design in an Urban Setting
		12.7.8 Forward Visibility/Visibility Splays
	12.8 Public Transport
		12.8.1 Bus and Rail Services in Cities
		12.8.2 Design of Street Network to Accommodate Bus Services
	12.9 Using Performance Indicators to Ensure a More Balanced Transport Policy
		12.9.1 The Traditional Approach
		12.9.2 Using LOS to Measure the Quality of Pedestrian Facilities
			12.9.2.1 Introduction
			12.9.2.2 Formulae for Estimation of Link-Based Pedestrian LOS
			12.9.2.3 Free-Flow Walking Speed
			12.9.2.4 Average Pedestrian Space
			12.9.2.5 Pedestrian LOS Score (Ip, link)
			12.9.2.6 Determining Link-Based Pedestrian LOS
		12.9.3 Using LOS to Measure the Quality of Cycling Facilities
			12.9.3.1 Formulae for Estimation of Link-Based Bicycle LOS
			12.9.3.2 Determining Link-Based Bicycle LOS
		12.9.4 Measuring the Quality of Public Transport Using LOS
			12.9.4.1 Acceleration-Deceleration Delay
			12.9.4.2 Delay Due to Serving Passengers
			12.9.4.3 Re-entry Delay (dre)
	12.10 A Sustainable Parking Policy
		12.10.1 Introduction
		12.10.2 Seminal Work of Donald Shoup in the United States
		12.10.3 The Pioneering ABC Location Policy in the Netherlands
		12.10.4 Possible Future Sustainable Parking Strategies
	References
Index
EULA