Heavy Metal Toxicity: Environmental Concerns, Remediation and Opportunities

Preface
Introduction
Contents
About the Editors
1: Cadmium Toxicity in Plants: Uptake, Translocation and Phytoremediation Strategy
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Biochemistry of Cd
	1.3 Phytoremediation of Cd
		1.3.1 Phytoextraction
		1.3.2 Phytostabilization
		1.3.3 Phytofiltration
		1.3.4 Phytostimulation
		1.3.5 Consequence of Phytoremediation on Cd Exclusion from Soil
	1.4 Cadmium Uptake and Transporter in Plants
		1.4.1 Cd Enter the Root Cell Membrane
		1.4.2 Cd Transporters for Plant Aerial Parts
		1.4.3 Vacuolar Transporter
	1.5 Cd Toxicity to Plants
	1.6 Heme Oxygenase as an Antioxidant Defence Against Oxidative Stress
	1.7 Crosstalk Between CO and Other Signalling Molecules
	1.8 Conclusion and Future Prospects
	References
2: Heavy Metal/Metalloid Contamination: Their Sources in Environment and Accumulation in Food Chain
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Sources of Heavy Metal(loid) Contamination in Environment
		2.2.1 Arsenic
		2.2.2 Cadmium
		2.2.3 Lead
		2.2.4 Mercury
	2.3 Level of Heavy Metal(loid) Contamination in Water
	2.4 Level of Heavy Metal(loid) Contamination in Soil
	2.5 Contamination of Heavy Metal(loid)s in Food
	2.6 Conclusion
	References
3: Heavy Metal/Metalloid Contamination: Impact on Human Health and Mitigation Strategies
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Impact of Heavy Metal/Metalloid Intake on Human Health
		3.2.1 Arsenic
		3.2.2 Cadmium
		3.2.3 Lead
		3.2.4 Mercury
	3.3 Mitigation Strategies of Heavy Metals/Metalloid
		3.3.1 Heavy Metal Mitigation from Water
		3.3.2 Heavy Metal Mitigation Strategies from Soil and Food Crops
	3.4 Conclusion
	References
4: Heavy Metal Pollution in the Environment: Impact on Air Quality and Human Health Implications
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Most Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources
	4.3 Exposure Pathways of Atmospheric Heavy Metals
	4.4 Assessment of Heavy Metals in the Atmosphere
		4.4.1 Metals in Particulate Matter
		4.4.2 Characteristics of Fine Particulate Matter
	4.5 Public Health Concern
		4.5.1 Health Implications
		4.5.2 Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAP)
			4.5.2.1 Antimony (Sb)
			4.5.2.2 Arsenic (As)
			4.5.2.3 Beryllium (Be)
			4.5.2.4 Cadmium (Cd)
			4.5.2.5 Chromium (Cr)
			4.5.2.6 Cobalt (Co)
			4.5.2.7 Lead (Pb)
			4.5.2.8 Mercury (Hg)
			4.5.2.9 Manganese (Mn)
			4.5.2.10 Nickel (Ni)
			4.5.2.11 Selenium (Se)
	4.6 Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP)
	4.7 Fate and Behavior of HMs in the Environment
		4.7.1 Sink Processes
			4.7.1.1 Adsorption and Co-precipitation
			4.7.1.2 Precipitation
			4.7.1.3 Integration of Biological Activity
		4.7.2 Remobilization Processes
			4.7.2.1 Increased Salt Concentrations
			4.7.2.2 Decrease in pH
			4.7.2.3 Redox Conditions
			4.7.2.4 Biochemical Process
	4.8 Conclusion
	References
5: Heavy Metal Contamination in Surface Water Bodies Through Construction and Demolition Waste: A Case Study of City of Lakes ...
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Study Area: Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India
		5.2.1 Drainage Basin of Bhopal Region
		5.2.2 Soil Classification of the City of Bhopal
	5.3 Rainfall Data of Madhya Pradesh, India
	5.4 Lakes of Bhopal City, Madhya Pradesh, India
		5.4.1 Upper Lake
		5.4.2 Lower Lake
	5.5 Construction and Demolition Waste
		5.5.1 Behata, Bairagarh
		5.5.2 Halalpur, Lalghati
		5.5.3 Khanugaon
		5.5.4 Intkhedi
		5.5.5 Goregaon
		5.5.6 Budhwara
		5.5.7 Jahangirabad
		5.5.8 Near Motia Talab, Kohefiza
		5.5.9 Idgah Hills
		5.5.10 Manisha Market, Shahpura
	5.6 Observation and Results
	5.7 Conclusion
	References
6: Soil Deterioration and Risk Assessment of Heavy Metal Contamination
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Source of Heavy Metal in Agricultural Soils
		6.2.1 Natural Source
		6.2.2 Anthropogenic Source
			6.2.2.1 Mining
			6.2.2.2 Sewage Irrigation
			6.2.2.3 Application of Pesticides
			6.2.2.4 Traffic Emission
			6.2.2.5 Waste Dumping
	6.3 Current Status of Heavy Metal Contamination in Different Land Use Pattern
	6.4 Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals
		6.4.1 Carcinogenic Risk
		6.4.2 Noncarcinogenic Risk
	6.5 Ecological Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals
		6.5.1 Contamination Factor
		6.5.2 Enrichment Factor
		6.5.3 Pollution Load Index
		6.5.4 Nemerow Composite Index
		6.5.5 Potential Ecological Risk Index
		6.5.6 Geoaccumulation Index
		6.5.7 Bioconcentration Factor
	6.6 Heavy Metals and Soil Interaction
	6.7 Heavy Metal and Human Interaction
	6.8 Conclusion
	References
7: Heavy Metal Contamination in Groundwater: Environmental Concerns and Mitigation Measures
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Metal Contamination in Groundwater
		7.2.1 Sources of Contamination
		7.2.2 Route and Fate of Metal Contamination
		7.2.3 Factors Affecting Metal Contamination
	7.3 Environmental Concern of Metal in Groundwater
		7.3.1 Effect of Metal Contamination on Water Quality
		7.3.2 Effects of Metals on Plants
		7.3.3 Effects of Metals on Aquatic Animals
	7.4 Mitigation Measures
		7.4.1 Treatment Technology
			7.4.1.1 Biological, Biochemical, and Biosorptive Treatment Technologies
			7.4.1.2 Physicochemical Treatment Technologies
		7.4.2 Safe Water Storage and Supply
	7.5 Conclusion
	References
8: Effect of Heavy Metals on Roadside Vegetation
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Vehicular Pollution
	8.3 Heavy Metals
	8.4 Impact of Heavy Metals on Roadside Vegetation
		8.4.1 Impact of Copper (Cu) on Plants
		8.4.2 Impact of Zinc (Zn) on Plants
		8.4.3 Impact of Lead (Pb) on Plants
		8.4.4 Impact of Cadmium (Cd) on Plants
		8.4.5 Impact of Nickel (Ni) on Plants
	8.5 Conclusion
	References
9: Heavy Metal Pollution in Atmosphere from Vehicular Emission
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Heavy Metal Pollution from Automobiles
		9.2.1 Exhaust-Generated Heavy Metal Pollution
		9.2.2 Non-Exhaust-Generated Heavy Metal Pollution
	9.3 Factors Affecting Heavy Metal Pollution Through Vehicular Emissions
		9.3.1 Climatic and Environmental Factors
		9.3.2 Geographical and Topographical Factors
		9.3.3 Types of Fuel Used in a Vehicle
		9.3.4 Traffic Density Factor
		9.3.5 Road-Associated Factors
		9.3.6 Vehicle-Associated Factors
			9.3.6.1 Type of Tires Used in a Vehicle
			9.3.6.2 Vehicle Speed
	9.4 Emission Level of Heavy Metals from the Various Transportation Sectors
	9.5 Global Contamination Level of Heavy Metals in Air Through Vehicular Emission
	9.6 Health Risk Assessment of People Located near Road Site
	9.7 Impacts of Heavy Metal Pollution Through Vehicular Emissions
		9.7.1 Impacts on the Environment
		9.7.2 Impacts on Human Health
	9.8 Regulation and Standards
	9.9 Conclusion
	References
10: Life Cycle Assessment of Heavy Metal Toxicity in the Environment
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Heavy Metals
		10.2.1 Copper
			10.2.1.1 Properties
			10.2.1.2 Exposure
			10.2.1.3 Effects
		10.2.2 Lead
			10.2.2.1 Properties
			10.2.2.2 Exposure
			10.2.2.3 Effects
		10.2.3 Chromium
			10.2.3.1 Properties
			10.2.3.2 Exposure
			10.2.3.3 Effects
		10.2.4 Mercury
			10.2.4.1 Properties
			10.2.4.2 Exposure
			10.2.4.3 Effects
		10.2.5 Arsenic
			10.2.5.1 Properties
			10.2.5.2 Exposure
			10.2.5.3 Effects
		10.2.6 Cadmium
			10.2.6.1 Properties
			10.2.6.2 Exposure
			10.2.6.3 Effects
	10.3 Life Cycle of Heavy Metals
	10.4 Recommended Limits for Heavy Metals
		10.4.1 Environment-Specific Pollution
			10.4.1.1 Water Pollution
			10.4.1.2 Air Pollution
			10.4.1.3 Soil Pollution
	10.5 Toxicological Processes
	10.6 Carcinogenesis
	10.7 Conclusion
	References
11: Metalliferous Soil Remediation Through Heavy Metal-Resistant Plant Growth-Promoting Bacteria: Prospects and Paradigms
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Toxicity of Heavy Metals and the Environment
	11.3 Heavy Metals
		11.3.1 Sources of Heavy Metal Pollution
			11.3.1.1 Natural Sources
			11.3.1.2 Anthropogenic Sources
		11.3.2 Environmental Impacts of Heavy Metals
			11.3.2.1 Effect on Soil
			11.3.2.2 Effects on Water
			11.3.2.3 Effects on Air
			11.3.2.4 Human Exposure to Heavy Metals
	11.4 Environmental Heavy Metal Remediation
		11.4.1 Biological Remediation
			11.4.1.1 Microbial Remediation
				11.4.1.1.1 Bacterial Remediation Capacity of Heavy Metals
				11.4.1.1.2 Plant Growth-Promoting Endophyte-Mediated Phytoremediation
				11.4.1.1.3 Fungi Remediation Capacity of Heavy Metal
				11.4.1.1.4 Algae Remediation Capacity of Heavy Metal
			11.4.1.2 Heavy Metal Removal Using Biofilm
				11.4.1.2.1 Metal-Microbe Interaction
			11.4.1.3 Methods for Heavy Metal Remediation Using Microorganisms
				11.4.1.3.1 Biosorption
				11.4.1.3.2 Bioaccumulation Process
				11.4.1.3.3 Biomineralization
				11.4.1.3.4 Bioleaching for Bioremediation
			11.4.1.4 Phytoremediation
	11.5 Conclusion
	References
12: Phytoremediation of Heavy Metals: Reaction Mechanisms and Selected Efficient Technologies of Heavy Metal Contamination
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Overview of Soil Pollution and Concept of Phytoremediation
	12.3 Sources of Heavy Metal Pollution in the Soil
	12.4 Fate and Pollution Pathway of Heavy Metals in Soil
		12.4.1 Fertilizers
		12.4.2 Pesticides
		12.4.3 Biosolids and Manures
		12.4.4 Industrial Wastewater and Mining Activity
		12.4.5 Airborne Networking
		12.4.6 Military Activities
	12.5 Effects of Heavy Metals on the Environmental Health
	12.6 Reaction Mechanisms of Heavy Metals in Soil
		12.6.1 Lead
		12.6.2 Chromium
		12.6.3 Arsenic
		12.6.4 Zinc
		12.6.5 Cadmium
		12.6.6 Copper
	12.7 Phytoremediation Technologies for Heavy Metal
		12.7.1 Phytoaccumulation
		12.7.2 Phytofiltration
		12.7.3 Phytostabilization
		12.7.4 Phytovolatilization
		12.7.5 Phytodegradation
		12.7.6 Rhizodegradation
		12.7.7 Phytoextraction
	12.8 Hyperaccumulators of Heavy Metals
	12.9 Drawbacks of Heavy Metal Phytoremediation
	12.10 Future Prospects in Heavy Metal Phytoremediation
	12.11 Conclusion
	References
13: Industrial Wastewater Treatment Strategies
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Industrial Wastewater Characteristics
	13.3 Strategies in Industrial Wastewater Treatment
		13.3.1 Reuse and Recovery
		13.3.2 Energy Conversion Approach
			13.3.2.1 Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs)
			13.3.2.2 Hydrogen and Methane Production
		13.3.3 Bioaugmentation
		13.3.4 Waste Reduction or Zero Waste Approach
			13.3.4.1 Reduce
			13.3.4.2 Reclamation (Removal)
			13.3.4.3 Reuse
			13.3.4.4 Recycling
			13.3.4.5 Recovery
		13.3.5 Integrated Approach
	References
14: Brassica Juncea L.: A Potential Crop for Phytoremediation of Various Heavy Metals
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Bioremediation
	14.3 Phytoremediation
	14.4 Morphology and Growth of Brassica Juncea L.
	14.5 Phytoremediation Mechanisms
		14.5.1 Phytovolatilization
		14.5.2 Phytoextraction
		14.5.3 Phytostabilization
		14.5.4 Rhizofiltration
		14.5.5 Rhizomediation
		14.5.6 Role of Brassica juncea L. in Phytoremediation
		14.5.7 Studies on Brassica juncea L. as a Phytoremediator
	14.6 Enhancement of Phytoremediation Process
		14.6.1 Enhanced Heavy Metal Phytoextraction with Chemicals
		14.6.2 Genetic Engineering Strategies for Plant Modification to Improve Phytoremediation
		14.6.3 Enhancement in the Phytoremediation Potential of Brassica juncea L. by Brassinosteroids
		14.6.4 Nanotechnological Approaches to Enhance Phytoremediation
	14.7 Conclusion
	References
15: Phytoremediation of Heavy Metals
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Heavy Metals and Their Sources
	15.3 Traditional Strategies for Removing Heavy Metals
		15.3.1 Excavation
		15.3.2 Capping
		15.3.3 Immobilization
		15.3.4 Vertification
		15.3.5 Electrokinetic
		15.3.6 Biological Methods
	15.4 Phytoremediation Strategies
		15.4.1 Phytoextraction (PE)
		15.4.2 Phytostabilization (PS)
			15.4.2.1 Factors Affecting Phytostabilization
				15.4.2.1.1 Edaphic Factors
				15.4.2.1.2 Plant Factors
				15.4.2.1.3 Contaminant Concentration
				15.4.2.1.4 Environmental Factors
				15.4.2.1.5 Plant-Microbial Interactions
		15.4.3 Phytovolatilization
		15.4.4 Rhizofiltration
		15.4.5 Rhizodegradation
			15.4.5.1 Advantages
			15.4.5.2 Challenges
	15.5 Future Prospects of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants for Phytoremediation
	15.6 Biotechnology-Based Strategies to Enhance Phytoremediation Potential of Plants
		15.6.1 Improving Phytoremediation by Utilizing Targeted Genes
			15.6.1.1 Overexpressing the Genes that Encode Metal Transporters and Their Role in Phytoremediation
			15.6.1.2 Overexpressing Genes Encoding Metal Chelators
			15.6.1.3 Overexpressing Genes Involved in Oxidative Stress Mechanisms
		15.6.2 Chloroplast Engineering for Enhanced Phytoremediation of Mercury
	15.7 Conclusion
	References
16: Bioremediation of Mining Sites: Sustainable Approach to Restore a Healthy Ecosystem
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Bioremediation
		16.2.1 Methods of Bioremediation
			16.2.1.1 Phytoremediation
		16.2.2 Factors Affecting Bioremediation
	16.3 Bioremediation of Mining Sites
		16.3.1 Phytoremediation
		16.3.2 Bacterial Remediation
		16.3.3 Mycoremediation
		16.3.4 Genoremediation
	16.4 Conclusion
	References
17: Industrial Pollution Management Approach
	17.1 Introduction
		17.1.1 Industrial Effluents
		17.1.2 A Glance of Basic Terms Used for Impurities/in the Analysis
		17.1.3 Major Sources of Industrial Wastewater
		17.1.4 Risk Assessment Involved in Waste Management
	17.2 Need for Industrial Wastewater Treatment
	17.3 Methods of Industrial Wastewater Treatment
		17.3.1 Fundamental Methods
		17.3.2 Conditions on Which Fundamental Methods Are Chosen
		17.3.3 Treatment Levels
			17.3.3.1 Sedimentation
			17.3.3.2 Filtration
			17.3.3.3 Coagulation
			17.3.3.4 Floatation
			17.3.3.5 Evaporation
			17.3.3.6 Skimming
			17.3.3.7 Electrodialysis
			17.3.3.8 Ion Exchange Method
			17.3.3.9 Reverse Osmosis
			17.3.3.10 Activated Sludge Process
			17.3.3.11 Hydrocyclone Oil Separators
			17.3.3.12 Trickling Filter Process
			17.3.3.13 Use of Smart Capsules
			17.3.3.14 Wet Air Oxidation (WAO)
	17.4 Applications of Effluent Treatment Plan
	17.5 Status of Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh, in Effluent Treatment (Case Study)
	17.6 Effects of Industrial Pollution
		17.6.1 On Human Health
		17.6.2 On Animal Health
		17.6.3 On Plants
	17.7 Control of Industrial Pollution
	17.8 Industries Approach Toward Waste and Limitation of Industries
	17.9 Conclusion
	References
18: Harnessing Green Energy Along with Precious Metal Recovery from Wastewater in Bioelectrochemical Systems: A Win-Win Scenar...
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Bioelectrochemical Systems: Types and System Configuration
		18.2.1 Bioelectrochemical Systems
			18.2.1.1 Microbial Fuel Cell
			18.2.1.2 Microbial Electrolysis Cell
			18.2.1.3 Microbial Desalination Cell
	18.3 Bioelectrochemical Recovery of Precious Metals
		18.3.1 Direct Metal Recovery on Abiotic Cathode
		18.3.2 Abiotic Cathodes Supported by the External Power Supply for Metal Recovery
		18.3.3 Metal Recovery Using Biocathode: Direct and External Supply Mediated System
	18.4 Mechanism of Metal Removal and Recovery in BES
	18.5 Factors Influencing System Performance
		18.5.1 Initial Metal Concentration
		18.5.2 pH Level
		18.5.3 Electrode Material
	18.6 Specific Metal Recovery
		18.6.1 Silver
		18.6.2 Gold
		18.6.3 Copper
		18.6.4 Chromium
		18.6.5 Platinum
		18.6.6 Cobalt
	18.7 Efficient Wastewater Treatment Using Bioelectrochemical Systems
	18.8 Electron Transfer Mechanism in BES and Bioelectricity Generation
		18.8.1 Microbial Extracellular Electron Transfer [EET]
			18.8.1.1 Electroactive Bacteria (EABs)
			18.8.1.2 Mechanism of EET
				18.8.1.2.1 Direct Extracellular Electron Transfer (DEET)
				18.8.1.2.2 Mediated Extracellular Electron Transfer (MEET)
		18.8.2 Bioelectricity Generation
	18.9 Conclusion
	References
19: Minimization of Cadmium Toxicity in Wheat by Exogenous Application of Hydroxamate Siderophore
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Materials and Methods
		19.2.1 Culture of Aspergillus nidulans and Isolation of Siderophore
		19.2.2 Purification and Quantification of Hydroxamate-Type Siderophore
		19.2.3 Cultivation and Treatment of Wheat Plant
		19.2.4 Cadmium Treatment
		19.2.5 Siderophore Treatment
		19.2.6 Morphological Analysis
		19.2.7 Physiological Analysis
			19.2.7.1 Pigment Analysis
			19.2.7.2 Free Amino Acid Content Estimation
		19.2.8 Biochemical Analysis
			19.2.8.1 Antioxidative Enzyme Assay
			19.2.8.2 Catalase Assay
			19.2.8.3 Peroxidase Assay
			19.2.8.4 Superoxide Dismutase Assay
	19.3 Results and Discussion
		19.3.1 Qualitative and Quantitative Estimation of Siderophore
		19.3.2 Cadmium Treatment
		19.3.3 Siderophore Treatment
		19.3.4 Root and Shoot Length
		19.3.5 Total Chlorophyll and Carotenoid Content
		19.3.6 Total Soluble Sugar Content
		19.3.7 Free Amino Acid (FAA) Determination
		19.3.8 Catalase Activity
		19.3.9 POD Activity
		19.3.10 SOD Activity
	19.4 Conclusion
	References
20: Microbial Remediation of Heavy Metals
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 Physicochemical of Heavy Metals Removal and Recovery from Wastewater
		20.2.1 Precipitation
		20.2.2 Coagulation-Flocculation
		20.2.3 Membrane Separation
		20.2.4 Solvent Extraction and Adsorption
	20.3 Removal of Heavy Metals in Contaminated Media by Biological Process
		20.3.1 Bioremediation
		20.3.2 Phytoremediation
		20.3.3 Biosorption, Bioreduction, and Biooxidation
		20.3.4 Bioleaching
		20.3.5 Bioprecipitation
	References